Гвоздева Пхысицс фор адванцед студентс 2011
.pdf3.How old was Einstein when he published his general theory of relativity?
4.For what paper did he get his Nobel Prize for physics?
5.What is the essence of his General Theory of Relativity?
6.What is the essence of his Special Theory of Relativity?
7.Why are scientists still working out the implications of the relativity theory although more than ninety years have passed since its development?
Give Russian correspondence:
concerning (about), once and for all (for ever), particularly (especially), a study (a research, an investigation), independent of, revolutionary (innovatory), no longer (no more)
THE FOUR PAPERS THAT CHANGED OUR IDEA
OF THE WORLD
FYI
1. heuristic – heuristic methods of learning involve reasoning and experience rather than formulas
2. a conversion – a process of changing something into a different state
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
In 1905, the 26-year-old Einstein, without a formal academic position, published four epochal papers within the space of seven months. His General Theory of Relativity with his famous equation E = mc2 (energy equals mass times the velocity of light squared) is a cornerstone of the modern nuclear age.
The first paper was titled “On a heuristic point of view concerning the generation and conversion of light.” This paper is the first step in the quantum revolution. In this paper Einstein proposed the hypothesis that light in its interaction with matter behaves like a particle with a discrete amount or ‘quantum’ of energy proportional to its frequency. Over the next two decades the hypothesis was verified experimentally and in 1921 Einstein got his Nobel Prize for physics.
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The second paper concerned the explanation of Brownian motion, the phenomenon of random motion executed by particles suspended in a fluid. This paper once and for all settled the question of the reality of atoms. It also developed methods that lie at the root of modern statistical physics, particularly in the study of systems out of equilibrium.
The third paper titled “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies’ opened the road to the Special Theory of Relativity. It abolished the notion that electromagnetic radiation requires some kind of medium, the ‘ether’, for its transmission; the problem which had occupied him for a decade. Einstein also postulated that the velocity of light was always constant, independent of the velocity of the emitter.
In the fourth paper Einstein announced the result that energy is proportional to mass, as a consequence of the Special Theory of Relativity. The constant of proportionality is the square of the speed of light.
In these papers, Einstein would initiate a revolutionary turn away from classical physics
Physics would no longer be the same after 1905. The link between ordinary sensory experience and the fundamental laws of nature that had existed in Newtonian physics would now be lost for ever.
Abraham Pais, Oxford
Vocabulary Notes
1.a space of time – a period of time
2.a frequency – the rate at which something happens
3.to concern – to be about
4.to be random – to have no definite pattern
5.to lie at the root – to lie at the bottom – to be a cornerstone – to be the essential part
6.to execute – to carry out, to implement
7.to abolish – to cancel
8.a notion – a concept – an idea
9.a consequence – an effect – an implication
10.a link – a bond – a connection
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
I. Formulate questions using the question words.
1.Einstein wrote his epochal papers ….. (How many years ago?)
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2.Einstein’s first paper was titled ……. (How?)
3.In his first paper Einstein proposed the hypothesis that …… (What hypothesis?)
4.The second paper concerned …… (What?)
5.The second paper developed methods that … (What methods?)
6.The third paper was titled …… (How?)
7.The third paper abolished the notion that ….. (What notion?)
8.In the third paper Einstein postulated that ….. (What?)
9.In the fourth paper Einstein announced … … (What?)
II. Put in the prepositions.
1.Light … its interaction … matter behaves … a particle … a discrete amount … energy proportional … its frequency.
2.… the next two decades the hypothesis was verified experimental-
ly.
3.… 1921 Einstein got his Nobel Prize … physics.
4.Brownian motion is a phenomenon … random motion executed … particles suspended … a fluid.
5.The second paper also developed methods that lie … the root … modern statistical physics, particularly … the study … systems ….. equilibrium.
6.The velocity … light is always constant ….. … the velocity … the emitter.
7.Energy is proportional … mass.
8.The constant …proportionality is the square … the speed … light.
III. Make up simple sentences with the below words and expres-
sions. Follow the passage.
1.to propose a hypothesis
2.to verify a hypothesis experimentally
3.to settle the question
4.to develop methods
5.to lie at the root
6.to abolish the notion
7.to postulate
8.to announce the results
IV. Give words close in meaning. |
|
1. a discrete amount of energy |
4. to be a cornerstone of |
2. to test |
5. especially |
3. to be concerned with |
|
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6. an investigation |
9. to begin |
7. a concept |
10. a link |
8. an implication |
11. no more |
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
Ask and answer the questions formulated in post-reading task I.
Exercise 2 (do it yourself)
Translate the sentences using the below words and expressions.
1 in its interaction with matter
2 to be verified experimentally
3 to be proportional to
4 to concern
5 to be suspended in a liquid
6 to develop a method
7 to lie at the root
8 to be independent of
1.Как ведёт себя свет при взаимодействии с материей?
2.При взаимодействии с материей свет ведёт себя как частица с дискретным количеством или квантом энергии, величина которого пропорциональна частоте света.
3.Эта гипотеза была проверена экспериментально?
4.О чем говорилось во второй статье?
5.Броуновское движение – это явление хаотического движения частиц, распыленных в жидкости.
6.В этой статье были разработаны методы, которые лежат в основе современной статистической физики.
7.Эйнштейн постулировал, что скорость света всегда постоянна, независимо от источника.
8.Энергия пропорциональна массе.
Exercise 3 (in groups) Brainstorming
1. What is conversion of light?
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2.What is a quantum of energy?
3.How is a quantum of energy and its frequency related?
4.What is Brownian motion?
5.What is statistical physics concerned with?
6.What is a system out of equilibrium?
7.What is the ‘ether’?
8.Why doesn’t electromagnetic radiation require a medium for its transmission?
9.How are the velocity of light and the velocity of the emitter re-
lated?
10.How are energy and mass related?
11.What is the constant of energy mass proportionality?
UNIT 7
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
“People, who believe in physics, know that the distinction between past, present and future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion.”
Einstein
“The real world seems to contain pairs of things that are quite different: space and time, matter and energy, particles and waves. Space and time seem to be the twin rails on which reality runs. But modern science has shown that space and time are aspects of one single thing. Reality runs on a single rail – the space-time monorail. According to general relativity, space and time together can be regarded as forming a four-dimensional space called space-time.”
John Polkinghorne, professor of mathematical physics at Cambridge
PRE-READING TASK
Give Russian correspondence:
rather (we use ‘rather’ to introduce a correction), in fact (actually), yet (but), depending on, the way (how), no longer (no more)
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
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The Special Theory of Relativity describes how objects move through space and time. It shows that time does not exist separate from space. Rather, future and past are just directions, like up and down, left and right, forward and backward, in something called space-time. The laws are the same on a bullet train or on a jet plane as they are for someone standing in one place. In fact, of course, even someone who is stationary on the earth is moving at about 30 kilometers a second around the sun.
The sun is also moving at several hundred kilometers a second around the galaxy. Yet all this motion makes no difference to the laws of physics; they are the same for all observers. But people traveling at different speeds have their own individual time depending on the speed they travel. For example, if I measure a car traveling down the road, I might think it had moved only one kilometer, but to someone on the sun, it would have moved about 1,800 kilometers, because the earth would have moved while the car was going down the road.
Because people moving at different speeds measure different distances between events, they must also measure different intervals of time.
The special theory of relativity combined time with space, but space and time were still a fixed background in which events happened. You could choose to move on different paths through space-time, but nothing you could do would modify the background of space and time.
However, all this was changed when Einstein formulated the general relativity in 1915.
Stephen Hawking
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing) I. Put in the prepositions.
1.The Special Theory of Relativity describes how objects move …. space and time.
2.Time does not exist separate …. space.
3.Someone who is stationary on the earth is moving … about 30 kilometers a second … the sun.
4.The sun is also moving … several hundred kilometers a second …. the galaxy.
5.The laws of physics are the same … all observers.
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6.People traveling … different speeds have their own individual time … the speed they travel.
7.Because people moving … different speeds measure different distances between events, they must also measure different intervals… time.
II. Formulate questions using the question words: What? At what speed? Why?
1.The Special Theory of Relativity describes …………………..
2.The Special Theory of Relativity shows ……………………..
3.According to Stephen Hawking future and past are ………….
4.Someone who is stationary on the earth is moving at …………..
5.The sun is moving at ………………………………..
6.People moving at different speeds measure different distances between events.
7.People moving at different speeds measure different intervals of
time.
CLASS-EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
Ask the questions formulated in post-reading II 1 and give answers.
Exercise 2 (do it yourself)
Run through the passage again and restructure it in your own way.
Exercise 3 (in pairs)
Explain your partner the essence of the special theory of relativi-
ty.
UNIT 8
THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
“The space is not flat; it is distorted, or curved, by the matter and energy in it. We observe this curvature in the bending of the light or radio waves that travel near the sun on their way to us.”
John Polkinghorne, professor of mathematical physics at Cambridge
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PRE-READING TASK
Give Russian correspondence:
Instead (rather), rather than (instead of), similarly (in the same way), normally (usually), the same, no longer (no more)
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points. Translate the sentence marked with asterisks in writing.
Einstein had the revolutionary idea that gravity was not just a force that operated in a fixed background of space-time. Instead, gravity was a distortion of space-time, caused by the mass and energy in it. Objects like cannon-balls and planets try to move on a straight line through spacetime, but because space-time is curved, warped, rather than flat, their paths appear to be bent. The earth is trying to move on a straight line through space-time, but the curvature of space-time produced by the mass of the sun causes it to go in a circle around the sun. Similarly, light tries to travel in a straight line, but the curvature of space-time near the sun causes the light from distant stars to be bent if it passes near the sun. Normally, one is not able to see the stars in the sky that are in almost the same direction as the sun. During an eclipse, however, when most of the sun’s light is blocked off by the moon, one can observe the light from those stars.
Einstein produced his general theory of relativity during the First World War (1915), when conditions were not suitable for scientific observations, but immediately after the war a British expedition observed the eclipse of 1919 and confirmed the predictions of general relativity: space-time is not flat, but is curved by the matter and energy in it.
This was Einstein’s great triumph. His discovery completely transformed the way we think about space and time. *They were no longer a passive background in which events took place. No longer could we think of space and time as running on for ever, unaffected by what happened in the universe. Instead, they were now dynamic quantities that influenced and were influenced by events that took place in them.*
Stephen Hawking
Vocabulary Notes
1.to distort – to twist
2.to curve – to bend
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3.to warp something – to change its shape by twisting
4.to cause – to make something do something
POST-REDING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
I. Formulate some sentences to describe what gravity is according to general relativity.
II. Give examples to illustrate the Einstein’s idea. III. Write what happens during the eclipse of the sun.
IV. Formulate some sentences to confirm the Einstein’s idea. V. Get prepared to speak about the general relativity.
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
You do not agree with your partner. Contradict him and give your grounds.
1.Space-time is flat.
2.Gravity is a force that operates in a fixed background of space-
time.
3.Cannon-balls move on a straight line through spacetime.
4.Planets move on a straight line through space-time.
5.Earth moves on a straight line through space-time.
6.Light travels in a straight line.
7.One is able to see the stars in the sky that are in the same direction as the sun.
8.During an eclipse one can’t observe the light from those stars.
9.Einstein produced his general theory of relativity in 1915 when conditions were suitable for scientific observations,
10.Space-time is a passive background in which events take place.
Exercise 2 (in groups)
Discussion: The theory of general relativity Each student contributes to the discussion.
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UNIT 9
GENERAL RELATIVITY IS NOT A COMPLETE THEORY
PRE-READING TASK Study some grammar points.
I. Seem and appear can express only the imperfective aspect – Russian казаться, оказываться.
The idea expressed by the Russian verb оказаться (i.e. the perfective aspect) is rendered by:
S + turn out + to V (to be V3)
S + prove + to V (to be V3) Study the sentences.
1. Each cell of a biological organism turned out to be like a comput-
er.
2.The science of the future may turn out to be more complicated. Phenomena may turn out to be very complicated and chaotic.
3.Going through a black hole will hardly prove to be a popular and reliable method of space travel.
We use both variants.
1.It turned out that Einstein’s theory of relativity predicted singulari-
ties.
2.Einstein’s general theory of relativity turned out to predict singularities.
1.It turned out that a necessary extra ingredient is quantum mechan-
ics.
2.A necessary extra ingredient turned out to be quantum mechanics.
II. The Participle
N + Ving or N + Ved with the words put together with them characterizes the noun it follows.
V-ing clause has an active meaning. Ved clause has a passive meaning.
Study the sentences.
1.You can think of ordinary, real time as a horizontal line, going from left to right.
2.Einstein also wrote about a phenomenon called the photoelectric effect.
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