Гвоздева Пхысицс фор адванцед студентс 2011
.pdfPOST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
Complete the sentences. (Ignore the question words.)
1. |
Before the Big Bang there was a............................................... |
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(What?) |
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2. |
At the beginning there was nothing except for ........................ |
(What?) |
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3. |
Immediately after the Big Bang the universe was |
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tremendously hot .......................................................................... |
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(Why?) |
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4. |
At around 10-43 seconds after creation there existed .............. |
(What?) |
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5. |
As these two particles of matter and antimatter are formed |
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together ......................................................................................... |
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(Why?) |
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6. |
There was established an asymmetry |
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in favor of...................................................... |
(In favor of what particles?) |
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7. |
Common particles of matter began to form ............................ |
(When?) |
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8. |
…………are common particles ................................. |
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(What particles?) |
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9. |
Photons, neutrinos and electrons are called .............................. |
(What?) |
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10. |
……… are the building blocks of matter and life.... |
(What particles?) |
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11. |
There were no heavy particles such as protons and neutrons.. (Why?) |
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12. |
There was only …….. at that moment .................................... |
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(What?) |
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13. |
A radical transition began ...................................................... |
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(When?) |
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14. |
…….… became the common state of matter........... |
(What particles?) |
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15. |
Protons and neutrons are……..particles....... |
(What kind of particles?) |
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16. |
Protons and neutrons are called ............................................. |
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(What?) |
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17. |
As a result of the reaction of protons and neutrons... |
(What element?) |
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18. |
Deuterium collected another …. and formed......................... |
(How?) |
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19. |
A helium nucleus was produced by ....................................... |
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(How?) |
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20. |
Hydrogen was formed by capturing an electron by ................ |
(How?) |
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CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (do it yourself)
Formulate questions to the sentences completed in post-reading task using the question words.
Exercise 2 (class activity) A Round Table Talk
‘The Beginning of the Universe’
Student A asks the first question, student B answers it and addresses the next question to student C.
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UNIT 4
MATTER PARTICLES AND INTERACTIONS
PRE-READING TASK Study some grammar points.
I. We use to V after the first, the second etc, the last and the next.
Study the sentence.
Electromagnetism and gravity were the first to have theories developed for them.
II. N + to V (to be V3) – an infinitive after a noun characterizes it and expresses an action that must be done or could be done in the future.
Study the sentences.
1.This is the most difficult question to answer.
2.We need some unifying theory to account for the initial conditions of the universe.
3.The particles to be described on the basis of computer models are virtual particles.
III. S + turns out + to V = Russian – оказывается, что Study the sentences.
1.The sun could shrink to being only a few miles across. One might
think that matter could not be compressed that far. But it turns out that it can.
We use two variants.
1.It turns out that surface gravity is the same at all points on the event horizon of a black hole.
2.Surface gravity turns out to be the same at all points on the event horizon of a black hole.
IV. If we want to emphasize a word or a part of a sentence, we use this structure:
It is (was) ……… that (which) ….; It is (was) ….. who … = Russian – именно, только
Study the sentences.
1.It is only in this case that the laws would determine how the universe should behave.
2.It wasn’t you who discovered black holes, Stephen. But it was their discovery that made you begin to think more closely about the ori-
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gin of the universe, wasn’t it? (From an interview with Stephen Hawking).
Give Russian correspondence:
to account for (to explain), though (although), instead (in place of something mentioned before), certain (particular), in a simple manner (in a simple way), such as (for example), thus far (so far, up until the present moment), whereas (but, while)
THE MATERIAL CONTENT OF THE UNIVERSE
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points. Translate the sentence marked with asterisks in writing.
We need a unifying theory to account for the initial conditions of the universe and the values of the various physical parameters. However, it is difficult to think up a complete theory of everything (though this does not seem to stop some people; I get two or three unified theories in the mail each week). What we do instead is we are looking for the partial theories that will describe situations in which certain interactions can be ignored or approximated in a simple manner. We divide the material content of the universe into two parts: matter particles and interactions. The matter particles are described by fields of one-half-integer spin and they obey the Pauli exclusion principle which forbids more than one particle of a given kind to be in any state. This is the reason we can have solid bodies that do not collapse to a point or radiate away to infinity. The matter particles are divided into two groups the hadrons which are composed of quarks and the leptons, which comprise the remainder.
The interactions are divided into four categories. In order of strength they are: the strong nuclear forces, which interact only with hadrons; electromagnetism, which interacts with charged hadrons and leptons; the weak nuclear forces which interact with all hadrons and leptons; and finally, the weakest thus far, gravity, which interacts with everything. The interactions are represented by integer-spin fields that do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle. This means they can have many particles in the same state. In the case of electromagnetism and gravity, the interactions are also long-range which means that the fields produced by a
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large number of matter particles can all add up to give a field that can be detected on a macroscopic scale. For these reasons, they were the first to have theories developed for them: gravity by Newton in the seventeenth century, and electromagnetism by Maxwell in the nineteenth century. However, these theories were basically incompatible because the Newtonian theory was invariant if the whole system was given any uniform velocity, whereas the Maxwell theory defined a preferred velocity – the speed of light. *In the end, it turned out to be the Newtonian theory of gravity that had to be modified to make it compatible with the invariance properties of the Maxwell theory.* This was achieved by Einstein’s general theory of relativity, which was formulated in 1915.
Vocabulary Notes
1.to think up – to invent
2.to comprise – to make up
3.the remainder – the rest – what is left
4.compatible – systems that are compatible are able to work together – incompatible (ant.)
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
I. Answer the question.
Why do solid bodies not collapse?
II. Study grammar point IV and translate the sentences.
1.It is a unifying theory that can account for the initial conditions of the universe and the values of physical parameters.
2.It is the Pauli exclusion principle that prevents more than one particle of a given kind from being in any state.
3.It is because more than one particle of a given kind can’t be in any state that solid bodies do not radiate away to infinity.
4.It is gravity which interacts with everything.
5.It is for this reason that electromagnetism and gravity were the first to have theories developed for them.
6.It turned out to be the Newtonian theory of gravity that had to be modified.
III. Study grammar point II and translate parts of sentences using N + to V (to be + V3).
Model: The question to be answered
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1.Вопрос, на который нужно ответить
2.Теория, которую нужно создать
3.Теория, которая могла бы объяснить начальные условия вселенной и значения различных физических параметров
4.Теория, которая могла бы описать все явления, происходящие во вселенной
5.Взаимодействия, которыми можно пренебречь (to neglect)
6.Взаимодействия, которые нужно аппроксимировать
7.Теория, которую нужно изменить
8.Трудности, которые нужно разрешить (to resolve)
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
Checking up understanding
1.Into what parts do scientists divide the material content of the universe?
2.What does the Pauli exclusion principle state?
3.Why do solid bodies not collapse to a point or radiate away to infinity?
4.What are the hadrons composed of?
5.What particles do the strong nuclear forces interact with?
6.What particles does electromagnetism interact with?
7.What particles do the weak nuclear forces interact with?
8.What particles does gravity interact with?
9.What fields do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle?
10.What does this mean?
11.Why are the Newton theory of gravity and the Maxwell theory of electromagnetism incompatible?
12.How was the incompatibility of the two theories resolved?
Exercise 2 (do it yourself)
Formulate questions using the question words.
1.The matter particles are described by …………. (By what fields?)
2.The matter particles obey ……………………….(What principle?)
3.Solid bodies do not collapse to a point…………………….(Why?)
4.The matter particles are divided into ………. (Into what groups?)
5.Hadrons are composed of ………………………(What particles?)
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6.The interactions are divided into ………… (Into what categories?)
7.The interactions are represented by ……………. (By what fields?)
Exercise 3 A Round Table Talk Matter particles and interactions
Student A asks the first question formulated in ex. 2, student B answers it and addresses the next question to student C.
UNIT 5
THE QUARKS
PRE-READING TASK
Study some grammar points.
I. We use two variants.
1.It was found that nucleons, protons and neutrons are made up of other particles called quarks.
2.Nucleons, protons and neutrons were found to be made up of other particles called quarks.
We use these structures with: is thought; is believed; is supposed; is expected; is considered (считают, полагают) is said (говорят); is known (известно) is proved (доказано)
Study the sentences.
1.It is supposed that the strong interactions between quarks are car-
ried out by spin-1 particles called gluons.
2. The strong interactions between the quarks are supposed to be carried out by spin-1 particles called gluons.
II. We use must, have to and should to say that it is necessary to do something.
With must the speaker is giving his own feelings; with have to he is just giving facts.
Should is not as strong as Must.
Study the sentences.
1.Hadrons have to be colorless.
2.It should be emphasized that quarks come in three colors.
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Note
We also use must + V to say we are sure that something is true = most probably.
Study the sentence.
It was realized that hadrons must be bound states of other particles called quarks.
III. S + seems + to V = Russian – По-видимому; Создаётся впе-
чатление, что + S
S + appears + to V = Russian – По видимому; Кажется, что;
Оказывается, что + S
We use S + seems (appears) + to have V3 for the action in the past.
Study the sentences.
1.Quarks seem to have a curious property.
2.It appears impossible to obtain one quark.
Give Russian correspondence:
by now, a product (a result), until, to realize (to understand), although (though), fairly (rather), within (in), either … or, too + Adj., any, it is likely (probably), it is unlikely (hardly)
HADRONS ARE COMPOSED OF QUARKS
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
By now it is clear that the particles of matter are composites. Protons and neutrons which constitute the masses of atomic nuclei were found to be made up of other particles called quarks, the product of imagination of physicists until their existence was confirmed in 1976. It was realized that the proton and other hadrons such as the pi meson could not be truly elementary particles, but they must be bound states of other particles called quarks. So, hadrons are composed of quarks.
Quarks seem to have a curious property that, although they can move fairly freely within a hadron, it appears impossible to obtain just one quark; they always come either in groups of three (like the proton or the neutron) or in pairs consisting of a quark and an antiquark (like the pi meson). To explain it the quarks were given an attribute called color. It should be emphasized that it has nothing to do with our own perception of color; quarks are too small to be seen by visible light. It is mere-
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ly a convenient name. The idea is that quarks come in three colors – red, green, and blue – but that any isolated bound state, such as a hadron, has to be colorless, either a combination of red, green and blue like the proton, or a mixture of red and antired, green and antigreen, and blue and antiblue, like the pi meson.
The strong interactions between the quarks are supposed to be carried out by spin-1 particles called gluons. The gluons also carry color, and they and the quarks obey a theory called chromodynamics, or QCD for short.
Scientists believe that quarks are not really elementary, as they seem to be at the moment, but they are bound states of the fundamental N = 8 particles. It is unlikely that we shall have accelerators powerful enough to probe these composite structures within the foreseeable future.
Stephen Hawking
Vocabulary Notes
1.a composite – something that is composed of other things
2.to confirm – to prove again
3.to be bound – to be closely related and to have an effect on each
other
4.curious – (here) – unusual
5.to have nothing to do with – to be different from
6.a perception – understanding – the ability to understand by means of five senses
7.to carry out – to perform
8.to obey – to do what you are told to do
9.to probe – to investigate
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
I. Formulate 5 sentences which begin with: It is realized that …
(the first paragraph).
Model: By now it is realized that the particles of matter are composites.
II. Formulate 3 sentences which begin with: It should be emphasized that … (the second paragraph).
III. Change the sentences according to the model. Model: S + is found (is supposed) + to V (be V3)
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1.Nucleons, protons and neutrons are composed of quarks.
2.Hadrons are bound states of other particles called quarks.
3.Hadrons are composed of quarks.
4.Quarks have a curious property.
5.Quarks come either in groups of three or in pairs consisting of a quark and an antiquark.
6.The strong interactions between the quarks are carried out by spin-
1particles called gluons.
7.The gluons carry color.
IV. Follow the passage. Formulate 4 simple sentences with
1.to constitute
2.to be made up of
3.to be composed of
4.to consist of
V. Give words close in meaning.
1.to be made up of
2.the product
3.to understand
4.unusual
5.rather
6.to have nothing to do with
7.to investigate the structure
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
Checking up understanding
1.Into what two groups are particles of matter divided?
2.What is the difference between hadrons and leptons?
3.How many quarks is the proton composed of?
4.How many quarks is the neutron composed of?
5.How many quarks is the pi meson composed of?
6.What property do quarks have?
5.What is the idea of the attribute called color?
6.By what particles are the strong interactions between quarks carried out?
7.What theory do quarks and gluons obey?
8.Are quarks elementary?
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Exercise 2 (do it yourself)
Make the sentences passive is (are), was (were) + V3 using a direct object as the subject.
1.Scientists confirmed the existence of quarks in 1976.
2.Scientists gave the quarks an attribute called color.
3.We can’t see quarks by visible light because they are very small.
4.Spin-1 particles carry out the strong interactions between the quarks.
5.Nuclear bonds hold together elementary particles.
6.Antiparticles replace particles. Left-handed replace right-handed.
Exercise 3 (do it yourself)
Complete the sentences.
1.Particles of matter … composites.
2.All particles ….. of …… of quarks.
2.Hadrons … elementary particles.
3.They …… quarks.
4.Quarks are … small ….. by visible light.
6.They …… a … property.
7.It is impossible ….. one quark.
8.Quarks come … in groups of three … in pairs.
9.Quarks come in three colors: …….
10.The strong interactions between quarks ….. … by gluons.
11.The gluons and the quarks ….. a theory …………
12.Scientists believe that ……………….
UNIT 6
A SHIFT FROM A NEWTONIAN
TO AN EISTEINIAN COSMOLOGY
THE SCIENCE OF ALBERT EINSTEIN
PRE-READING TASK
I. What do you know about Albert Einstein?
1.What epochal papers did Einstein write?
2.In what year did he write his epochal papers?
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