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Preface...........................................................................................................................................	xiii
Author.........................................................................................................................................	xxxi
1. Combustion Calculations .....................................................................................................	1
Introduction..............................................................................................................................	1
Moisture in Air.........................................................................................................................	1
Combustion Calculations .......................................................................................................	2
Excess Air from Flue Gas Analysis ..................................................................................	8
Simplified Combustion Calculations .............................................................................	10
Estimation of Heating Values...............................................................................................	12
Burner Selection.....................................................................................................................	13
Combustion Temperatures ...................................................................................................	14
Simplified Procedure for Estimating Combustion Temperatures..................................	15
Effect of FGR on Combustion Temperature..................................................................	15
Relating FGR and Oxygen in Windbox .........................................................................	16
Gas Turbine Exhaust Combustion Calculations ...............................................................	17
Relating Oxygen and Energy Input in Turbine Exhaust Gases .................................	17
Evaluating Fuel Quantity Required to Raise Turbine Exhaust Gas Temperature ......	19
Firing Temperature versus Oxygen, Burner Duty, and Water Vapor........................	21
Boiler Efficiency .....................................................................................................................	21
Heat Loss Method.............................................................................................................	22
Simplified Formulae for Boiler Efficiency .....................................................................	23
Simplified Procedure for Obtaining Major Boiler Parameters...................................	26
Excess Air versus Efficiency............................................................................................	26
Firing Fuels with Low Heating Values...............................................................................	27
Firing of Multiple Fuels.........................................................................................................	29
Emission Conversion Calculations: Steam Generators ....................................................	29
Converting ppmvd of NOx to mg/Nm3 ..............................................................................	32
Converting Turbine Exhaust Emissions .............................................................................	34
Low-Temperature Corrosion in Boilers ..............................................................................	35
Condensation of Acid Vapors in Low-Temperature Heat Sinks .....................................	38
Acid Dew Point Temperature Tdp....................................................................................	38
References ...............................................................................................................................	40
2. Steam Generator Furnace Design......................................................................................	41
Advantages of Water-Cooled Furnaces ..............................................................................	43
Ring Header Design .........................................................................................................	44
Heat Release Rates .................................................................................................................	46
Steam Pressure ..................................................................................................................	47
Circulation Systems ..........................................................................................................	52
Furnace Exit Gas Temperature Evaluation.........................................................................	53
Empirical Formula for Furnace Duty Estimation .............................................................	57

vii

viii	Contents
Furnace Duty with Combination Firing.............................................................................	60
Distribution of Heat Flux around Tubes and Fins ............................................................	61
Distribution of Radiation to Tube Banks............................................................................	61
Relating Heat Flux from Furnace to inside Tubes.............................................................	64
External Radiation to Heat Transfer Surfaces at Furnace Exit ........................................	65
Direct Radiation to Superheater at Part Load...............................................................	66
Terms Frequently Used in Furnace Performance..............................................................	67
Estimating Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient....................................................................	67
Estimating Fin Tip Temperature..........................................................................................	68
Boiling Process .......................................................................................................................	69
Boiler Circulation...................................................................................................................	70
Thom’s Method for Estimating Losses ...............................................................................	75
Circulation Calculations .......................................................................................................	77
Circulation Flow versus Load .........................................................................................	81
Flow Stratification in Horizontal Tubes..............................................................................	82
Correlations for CHF (Critical Heat Flux) and Allowable Steam Quality.....................	82
Circulation Problems.............................................................................................................	85
Guidelines for Good Circulation System Design..............................................................	85
References ...............................................................................................................................	86
3. Steam Generators..................................................................................................................	87
Introduction............................................................................................................................	87
Large Package Boilers............................................................................................................	87
Water-Cooled Furnaces.........................................................................................................	90
Major Changes in Boiler Design..........................................................................................	90
Absence of Air Heater...........................................................................................................	90
Emissions Affect Steam Generator Designs ......................................................................	92
Custom-Designed Boilers .....................................................................................................	97
Novel Ideas .............................................................................................................................	97
O-Type Package Boiler......................................................................................................	98
Dual-Pressure Design.......................................................................................................	99
Small Changes, Big Benefits ............................................................................................	99
Boiler Classification .............................................................................................................	103
Improving Boiler Efficiency ...............................................................................................	108
Adding Condensate Heater to Improve Boiler Plant Efficiency...............................	109
Understanding Boiler Performance..............................................................................	111
Why Economizer Does Not Steam in Steam Generators ..........................................	112
Understanding Boiler Surface Areas............................................................................	113
Steam Generators for Oil Sands Application...................................................................	115
Superheaters .........................................................................................................................	118
Radiant versus Convective Superheaters ....................................................................	121
How Emissions Impact Radiant and Convective Superheaters...............................	124
Arrangement of Superheaters .......................................................................................	124
Steam Temperature Control ..........................................................................................	125
Steam Generators with Import and Export Steam..........................................................	129
Flow in Parallel Paths..........................................................................................................	129
Steam Inlet and Exit Nozzle Location...............................................................................	130
Off-Design Performance of Superheater...........................................................................	131

Contents	ix
Case Study of a Superheater with Tube Failure Problems.............................................	135
Problem at Low Loads with Inverted-Loop Superheaters ........................................	137
Steam Generator Design and Performance......................................................................	138
Data Required for Performing Steam Generator Analysis .......................................	139
Checking Boiler Performance .......................................................................................	142
Evaluating Part Load Performance ..............................................................................	146
Performance without Economizer.....................................................................................	149
Tube Wall Temperature Estimation at Economizer Inlet...............................................	149
Methods to Minimize Low-Temperature Corrosion Problems.....................................	151
Precautions to Minimize Corrosion in Operation ..........................................................	154
Water Chemistry, Carryover, Steam Purity .....................................................................	155
Fire Tube Boilers...................................................................................................................	157
Boiler Horse Power .........................................................................................................	160
Sizing and Performance Calculations..........................................................................	160
References .............................................................................................................................	163
4. Waste Heat Boilers..............................................................................................................	165
Introduction..........................................................................................................................	165
Gas Inlet Temperature and Analysis............................................................................	168
Flue Gas Composition and Gas Pressure ....................................................................	170
Water Tube versus Fire Tube Boilers ............................................................................	173
Circulation Systems ........................................................................................................	174
Heat Recovery in Sulfur Plants.....................................................................................	178
Heat Recovery in Sulfuric Acid Plant ..........................................................................	181
Heat Recovery in Hydrogen Plants ..............................................................................	182
Combining Solar Energy with Heat Recovery Systems ............................................	184
Gas Turbine HRSGs ........................................................................................................	184
Natural, Forced Circulation, Once-Through Designs, and Special Applications .....	188
Natural versus Forced Circulation HRSGs .................................................................	191
Emission Control in HRSGs ..........................................................................................	194
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion ..........................................................................................	195
Water Tube Waste Heat Boilers: Sizing and Performance..............................................	197
Optimizing Pinch and Approach Points in HRSGs ..................................................	197
HRSG Performance and Evaluating Field Data..........................................................	199
Efficiency of Waste Heat Boiler, HRSG ........................................................................	204
Advantages of Supplementary Firing in HRSGs...................................................	204
HRSG and Steam Generator Performance ..................................................................	205
Optimum Utilization of Boilers ....................................................................................	205
Combined Cycle Plants and Fired HRSGs ..................................................................	206
HRSGs with Split Superheaters ....................................................................................	208
Performance with and without Export Steam ............................................................	208
Providing Margins on Heating Surfaces.....................................................................	217
Cement Plant Waste Heat Recovery .............................................................................	217
Kalina Cycle..........................................................................................................................	223
Advantages of Kalina Cycle ..........................................................................................	224
Fluid Heaters and Film Temperature................................................................................	227
Design of Fire Tube Boilers.................................................................................................	230
Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient ho.............................................................................	231

x	Contents
Effect of Scale Formation...........................................................................................	234
Estimation of Loss in Performance Due to Fouling ..............................................	236
Tube Wall Thickness Calculations...........................................................................	236
Off-Design Performance with Addition of Economizer............................................	238
Simulation of Fire Tube Boiler Performance ...............................................................	239
Effect of Gas Analysis on Performance........................................................................	241
Critical Heat Flux qc........................................................................................................	242
Effect of Tube Size on Boiler Design ............................................................................	244
Estimating Tube Bundle Diameter ...............................................................................	245
Simplified Approach to Evaluating Performance of Fire Tube Boilers ...................	245
Estimating Tube Sheet Thickness.................................................................................	248
Estimating Tube Sheet Temperature with Refractory and Ferrules........................	248
Calculation of Tube Sheet Temperature without Refractory on Tube Sheet ..........	249
Air Heaters............................................................................................................................	250
Heat Pipes .............................................................................................................................	251
Design of Tubular Air Heaters...........................................................................................	252
Heat Transfer Inside and Outside Tubes .....................................................................	253
Part Load Performance...................................................................................................	257
Specifying Waste Heat Boilers ......................................................................................	258
Waste Heat Boiler Data (Thermal Design) .......................................................................	259
References .............................................................................................................................	261
5. HRSG Simulation...............................................................................................................	263
Introduction..........................................................................................................................	263
What Is HRSG Simulation? ................................................................................................	263
Applications of HRSG Simulation.....................................................................................	265
Understanding Pinch and Approach Points....................................................................	266
Estimating Steam Generation and Gas–Steam Temperature Profiles..........................	267
Why Cannot We Arbitrarily Select the Pinch and Approach Points?..........................	270
Why Should Pinch and Approach Points Be Selected in Unfired Mode? ...................	271
Simulation of HRSG Evaporator........................................................................................	272
Supplementary Firing .........................................................................................................	273
Off-Design Performance Evaluation .................................................................................	274
How Accurate Is Simulation?.............................................................................................	279
Steaming in Economizer.....................................................................................................	281
Methods to Minimize Steaming in Economizer ........................................................	283
Field Data Evaluation ..........................................................................................................	284
Singleor Multiple-Pressure HRSG ..................................................................................	286
Split Superheater Design.....................................................................................................	295
Fresh Air Firing....................................................................................................................	299
Efficiency of HRSG ..............................................................................................................	300
Cogeneration Plant Application.........................................................................................	301
Optimizing HRSG Arrangement ......................................................................................	303
Application of Simulation to Understand the Effect of Ambient Conditions.............	305
Applying Margins on Exhaust Gas Flow and Temperature .........................................	306
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................	308
References .............................................................................................................................	308

Contents	xi
6. Miscellaneous Boiler Calculations .................................................................................	309
Condensing Economizers...................................................................................................	309
Water Dew Point of Flue Gases.....................................................................................	310
Energy Recoverable through Condensation ...............................................................	311
Condensation Heat Transfer Calculations...................................................................	312
Condensation over Finned Tubes .................................................................................	315
Wall Temperature of Uninsulated Duct, Stack................................................................	317
Insulation Calculations.......................................................................................................	320
Hot Casing Design..........................................................................................................	322
Drum Coil Heater: Bath Heater Sizing .............................................................................	323
Checking Heat Transfer Equipment for Noise and Vibration Problems .....................	327
Determining Natural Frequency of Vibration of Tubes ............................................	327
Acoustic Frequency fa .....................................................................................................	328
Vortex Shedding Frequency fe.......................................................................................	328
Damping Criterion..........................................................................................................	331
Fluid Elastic Instability ..................................................................................................	332
Steam Drum Calculations ..................................................................................................	333
Steam Velocity in Drum.................................................................................................	333
Blowdown Calculations .................................................................................................	335
Drum Holdup Calculations...........................................................................................	339
Estimating Flow in Blowdown Lines................................................................................	340
Theory...............................................................................................................................	340
Flow Instability in Two-Phase Circuits ............................................................................	343
Transient Calculations.........................................................................................................	346
Analysis of an Evaporator..............................................................................................	348
Drum-Level Fluctuations...............................................................................................	350
Fan Calculations...................................................................................................................	351
Density of Flue Gas, Air.................................................................................................	351
Pressure Drop in Ducts..................................................................................................	352
Fan Selection....................................................................................................................	353
Why Should the Fan Capacity Be Reviewed at the Lowest Density
Condition? ................................................................................................................	354
Head Developed by Fan.................................................................................................	355
Fan Power Consumption................................................................................................	355
Estimating Stack Effect ..................................................................................................	355
References .............................................................................................................................	356
Appendix A: Boiler Design and Performance Calculations .............................................	357
Appendix B: Tube-Side Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop ........................	377
Appendix C: Heat Transfer Coefficients Outside Plain Tubes.........................................	393
Appendix D: Nonluminous Heat Transfer Calculations...................................................	407
Appendix E: Calculations with Finned Tubes.....................................................................	413
Appendix F: Properties of Gases ............................................................................................	447
Appendix G: Quiz on Boilers and HRSGs with Answers ................................................	477

xii	Contents
Conversion Factors	.....................................................................................................................485
Glossary .......................................................................................................................................	491
Nomenclature .............................................................................................................................	493

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