6. Types of semantic changes

There are many causes of semantic change:

1. Historical causes.

According to historical principle, everything changes, e.g. social institutions change in the course of time, and the words also change. For example, changes of lexical meaning of the noun “pen” goes back to the Latin word “penna” (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Later any instrument for writing was called “a pen”.

2. Psychological causes.

Taboos of various kinds. Words are replaced by other words; sometimes people do not realize that they use euphemisms. For example, “lady’s room” instead of “the lavatory”

3. Linguistic causes.

There is a tendency of a language to borrow a particular metaphorical development of a word from another language.

Change of meaning is effected through association between the existing meaning and the new. This association is generally based on the similarity of meaning (metaphor) or on the contiguity of meaning (metonymy).

There are several types of change of meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) widening of meaning; 4) narrowing of meaning (сужение); 5) elevation (улучшение); 6) degeneration.

1. Metaphor is a change of meaning based on the association of similarity between two referents. In the head of a cabbage, metaphor is based on the similarity of shape; in bookworm (a person who is fond of books), there is the similarity of behaviour. Very often this similarity implies outward likeness, e.g. the neck of a bottle, the tongues of the fire, the eye of the needle.

The name of the colour may be formed metaphorically from the name of the object, e.g. the colour “orange” from “orange” (fruit – апельсин); “hazel – карий” from “hazel” (nut – орех).

So, metaphor is a transfer of meaning on the basis of comparison. Herman Paul points out that metaphor can be based on different types of similarity:

1) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a comb);

2) similarity of position, e.g. foot ( of a page, of a mountain), head ( of a procession);

3) similarity of function, behaviour e.g. a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the voting);

4) similarity of colour, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut etc.

In some cases we have a complex similarity, e.g. the leg of a table has a similarity to human leg in its shape, position and function.

Many metaphors are based on parts of human body, e.g. an eye of a needle, arms and mouth of a river, head of an army, hands of the clock.

A special type of metaphor is when Proper names become common nouns, e.g. philistine – a mercenary person, vandals – destructive people, a Don Juan – a lover of many women etc.

2. Metonymy is a change of meaning based on the association of contiguity (близость); the semantic process of associating two referents, one of which makes part of the other or is connected with it in some other way. The associations between objects are different. There are various models of metonymy, e.g. material > object made from this material: glass – a glass; place > people occupying it: chair – the chair (the chairperson); inventor > invented object: Watt James (Scottish engineer and inventor) – watt (a unit of power). For example, the name of the place may be used as the name of the people in it (ассоциация по пространству). (The house were against it – члены палаты были против).

Thus, metonymy is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of metonymy:

1) the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object, e.g. a glass, boards, iron etc;

2) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House – members of Parliament, Fleet Street – bourgeois press, the White House – the Administration of the USA etc;

3) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. the violin, the saxophone;

4) the name of some person may become a common noun, e.g. “boycott” was originally the name of the Irish family who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they did not mix with them; “sandwich” was named after Lord Sandwich who was a gambler. He did not want to interrupt his game and had his

food brought to him while he was playing cards between two slices of bread not to soil his fingers;

5) names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented, e.g. “watt”, “om”, “rentgen” etc;

6) geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a special kind of carpets), china (porcelain), astrakhan (a sheep fur) etc.

3. Widening of meaning is a kind of semantic change which makes the word denote a wider variety of objects. For example, “pipe” used to denote “музыкальный инструмент” now – “трубка”; “to arrive” used to be “высадиться”, now – “прибывать”.

4. Narrowing of meaning is a kind of semantic change which makes the word denote a narrower variety of objects. For example, “meat” used to be “еда”, now –“мясо”; “deer” used to be “любой зверь”, now – “олень”.

5. Elevation of meaning is a kind of semantic change which makes the meaning developed in positive connotation which was absent in the first meaning. For example, the word “knight” used to be “молодой воин”, now – “рыцарь”.

6. Degeneration of meaning is a kind of semantic change which makes the meaning developed in negative connotation which was absent in the original meaning. For example, “knave” used to denote “мальчик”, now it is a bad word means “негодяй”.

These change of meaning reflex the changes that take place in our life.

Polysemy is a result of:

1. shifts in application (сдвиг в употреблении), e.g. adjective red: 1) red ink (is really red); 2) red hair (рыжие); 3) red deer (благородный); 4) red cabbage (краснокачанная); 5) red Indian (краснокожий);

2. specialization, e.g. partner (“a type of relationship between two or more people” – the basic meaning); a business partner; a marriage partner; a partner in crime;

3. metaphorical extension (a fundamental feature of any language), e.g. leaf of a tree – leaf of a book; hands of a person – hands of a clock;

4. words can pick up the meanings from other dialects, languages and slang, e.g. the word executive in British English denotes “one who acts under direction of somebody” (исполнитель) whereas in American English – “a manager”. Now American English meaning is more widely used.

SEMINAR 3

KEY TERMS

polysemy context

mono-semantic direct meaning

indirect meaning syntagmatic relations

radiation concatenation

metonymy metaphor

paradigmatic relations mixed polysemy

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES

1. Types and nature of semantic change.

2. Polysemy in English.

3. The semantic structure of words: polysemantic and mono-semantic words.

4. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic approaches.

5. Changes in the semantic structure of a word.

6. Classifications of meanings of the polysemantic word.

7. Types of polysemy.

1. State which of the words possesses wider polysemy and explain why: man, fellow, change, joy, federation, order.

2. Compare the semantic structure of the following words: (a) slender and skinny; (b) to stop and to cease.

3. Write out as many meanings of the following words as you can, consult a dictionary: a ball, a sheet, right, a scandal, paper, a hall, a match, a sentence, thing, a hand, a bench, a board, case.

4. What are the meanings of the polysemantic words which are played upon in the jokes?

a) The teacher was giving her class a test in natural history.

“Now, Tony”, she said, “tell me where the elephant is found”.

Tony thought a little and then answered: “The elephant is such a large animal that it is hardly ever lost”.

b) Caller: “I wonder if I can see your mother, little boy. Is she engaged?”

Willie: “Engaged! She’s married.”

c) Pam: “Hasn’t Tom ever married?”

Beryl: “No, and I don’t think he intends to, because he’s studying for a bachelor’s degree.”

d) “My grandpa lived to be ninety and never used glasses.”

“Well, lots of people prefer to drink from a bottle.”

e) “And how old are you, my little man?”

“I’m not old at all. I’m nearly new.”

f) Nelly: “Is the man your sister is going to marry – rich?”

Dick: “I don’t think so.”

Nelly: “What makes you think so?”

Dick: “Well, every time mother talks about the wedding father says ‘poor man’!”

5. Analyze the contexts in which the verb make is used and identify the meanings of this word.

1. The carpenters made a bed.

2. She made her bed before breakfast.

3. He has made several films.

4. He made a fortune on the stock market.

5. She made him cry.

6. She made a good wife.

7. It’s my first holiday for two years so I’m going to make the most of it.

8. She usually makes coffee for us.

Test

1. The word “polysemy” means:

a) secondary meaning of a word

b) connotational meaning

c) plurality of meanings

d) the process of semantic development

2. The causes of semantic changes can be:

a) phonological

b) morphological

c) specialised

d) extra-linguistic and linguistic

3. Metaphor is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of:

a) comparison

b) contiguity

c) similarity

d) oppositions

4. Metonymy is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of:

a) comparison

b) contiguity

c) similarity

d) oppositions

5. Find a mono-semantic word:

a) table

b) hydrogen

c) head

d) country

6. Which is the direct meaning of the polysemantic word “hand”?

a) factory or dockyard worker

b) the pointer of a watch

c) side or direction

d) part of the human arm beyond the wrist

PART TWO