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A Synopsis of the Israel/Palestine Conflict

For centuries there was no such conflict. In the 19th century the land of Palestine was inhabited by a multicultural population – approximately 86 percent Muslim, 10 percent Christian, and 4 percent Jewish – living in peace.

Zionism

In the late 1800s a group in Europe decided to colonize this land. Known as Zionists, they represented an extremist minority of the Jewish population. Their goal was to create a Jewish homeland.

At first, this immigration created no problems. However, as more and more Zionists immigrated to Palestine – many with the express wish of taking over the land for a Jewish state – the indigenous population became increasingly alarmed. Eventually, fighting broke out, with escalating waves of violence. Hitler's rise to power, combined with Zionist activities to sabotage efforts to place Jewish refugees in western countries, led to increased Jewish immigration to Palestine, and conflict grew.

UN Partition Plan

Finally, in 1947 the United Nations decided to intervene. However, rather than adhering to the principle of “self-determination of peoples,” in which the people themselves create their own state and system of government, the UN chose to revert to the medieval strategy whereby an outside power divides up other people’s land.

Under considerable Zionist pressure, the UN recommended giving away 55% of Palestine to a Jewish state – despite the fact that this group represented only about 30% of the total population, and owned under 7% of the land.

1947-1949 War

While it is widely reported that the resulting war eventually included five Arab armies, less well known is the fact that throughout this war Zionist forces outnumbered all Arab and Palestinian combatants combined – often by a factor of two to three. Moreover, Arab armies did not invade Israel – virtually all battles were fought on land that was to have been the Palestinian state.

Finally, it is significant to note that Arab armies entered the conflict only after Zionist forces had committed 16 massacres, including the grisly massacre of over 100 men, women, and children at Deir Yassin.

By the end of the war, Israel had conquered 78 percent of Palestine; three-quarters of a million Palestinians had been made refugees; over 500 towns and villages had been obliterated; and a new map was drawn up, in which every city, river and hillock received a new, Hebrew name, as all vestiges of the Palestinian culture were to be erased

1967 War ; USS Liberty

In 1967, Israel conquered still more land. Following the Six Day War, in which Israeli forces launched a highly successful surprise attack on Egypt, Israel occupied the final 22% of Palestine that had eluded it in 1948 – the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Since, according to international law it is inadmissible to acquire territory by war, these are occupied territories and do not belong to Israel. It also occupied parts of Egypt (since returned) and Syria (which remain under occupation).

Also during the Six Day War, Israel attacked a US Navy ship, the USS Liberty, killing and injuring over 200 American servicemen.

Current Conflict

There are two primary issues at the core of this continuing conflict. First, there is the inevitably destabilizing effect of trying to maintain an ethnically preferential state, particularly when it is largely of foreign origin. The original population of what is now Israel was 96 percent Muslim and Christian, yet, these refugees are prohibited from returning to their homes in the self-described Jewish state (and those within Israel are subjected to systematic discrimination).

Second, Israel's continued military occupation and confiscation of privately owned land in the West Bank, and control over Gaza, are extremely oppressive, with Palestinians having minimal control over their lives. Over 10,000 Palestinian men, women, and children are held in Israeli prisons. Physical abuse and torture are frequent. Palestinian borders (even internal ones) are controlled by Israeli forces. Periodically men, women, and children are strip searched; people are beaten; food and medicine are blocked from entering Gaza, producing an escalating humanitarian crisis. Israeli forces invade almost daily, injuring,

kidnapping, and sometimes killing inhabitants.

After years of Israel continuing to confiscate land and conditions steadily worsening, the Palestinian population rebelled. This uprising, called the "Intifada" (Arabic for "shaking off") began at the end of September 2000.

U.S. Involvement

Largely due to special-interest lobbying, U.S. taxpayers give Israel an average of $7 million per day, and since its creation have given more U.S. funds to Israel than to any other nation. As Americans learn about how Israel is using our tax dollars, many are calling for an end to this expenditure.

Exercise 1 Match the word combinations and their translation.

Exercise 2 Say if the sentences are true or false.

1.In the 19th century the land of Palestine was inhabited by Muslim population.

2.Zionists, who represented an extremist minority of the Jewish population. had a goal to create a Jewish homeland.

3.The UN recommended giving away 10% of Palestine to a Jewish state.

4.By the end of 2nd World War, Israel had conquered 78 percent of Palestine;

three-quarters of a million Palestinians had been made refugees.

5.Following the Six Day War, in which Israeli forces launched a highly successful surprise attack on Egypt, Israel occupied the final 22% of Palestine .

6.After years of Israel continuing to confiscate land and conditions steadily worsening, the Palestinian population rebelled.

Exercise 3 Answer these questions.

1.When and how did the Israel/Palestine Conflict start?

2.What was the role of the UN in the conflict?

3.How did Israel conquer the territories?

4.What is core of this continuing conflict?

5.What role did the US play in this conflict?

Total : 20

Your score :_________________

TEXT 4.

By Richard Black, Environment correspondent, BBC News, Bonn

The first round of UN climate talks since December's bitter Copenhagen summit opens in Bonn on Friday with the future of the process uncertain.

Developing countries are adamant that the UN climate convention is the right forum for negotiating a global deal and want it done by the year's end.

But others, notably the US, appear to think this is not politically feasible.

Some delegates are concerned that the whole process could collapse, given the divisions and lack of trust.

"There is the political will among developing countries. They are working for an agreement that includes further emissions reductions under the Kyoto Protocol," Martin Khor, executive director of the South Centre, an intergovernmental organization of developing countries, told the BBC.

"Whether there is political will among the industrialized countries is another matter," he said.

Developing nations have been pressing to agree a series of preparatory meetings this year - as many as five - in order that outstanding differences on the text of a new agreement can be worked out in time for the next major

summit in Mexico, in November and December.

But delegates here said that richer countries were resisting this, holding out for just one more meeting before November, which would leave no chance of agreeing a new global treaty or even agreeing a framework.

Analyses released since the end of the Copenhagen summit suggest that without further constraints soon, it will be very difficult to keep the rise in average global temperatures since pre-industrial times below 2C, a threshold commonly cited as indicating dangerous climate change.

Cross parties

The US, in particular, is in a sticky situation regarding domestic legislation.

An initial bill, introduced to the Senate last September, is widely seen as having no chance of passing.

A cross-party group of senators has been drawing up a new one, containing concessions to some states and industries.

But this version, if enacted, may reduce US emissions by considerably less than the 17% figure (from 2005 levels by 2020) that President Barack Obama pledged when he addressed Copenhagen.

"There's considerable uncertainty about whether there is going to be a US domestic bill that follows through on the president's 17% commitment," said Alden Meyer, director of strategy and policy at the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS).

"The administration is very sceptical about the ability to get a full-blown legal deal that replaces the Kyoto Protocol or builds on it"

BASIC instinct

Immediately after the Copenhagen summit, the US appeared to have formed a powerful new alliance with the BASIC group of countries - Brazil, China, India and South Africa - that steered through the controversial and weak Copenhagen Accord on the summit's final day.

There were signs that this group saw the accord, with its voluntary nature, as more attractive than the traditional negotiations and supposedly binding commitments of the UN process.

Climate change - A pattern of change affecting global or regional climate as measured by yardsticks such as average temperature and rainfall, or an alteration in frequency of extreme weather conditions. This variation may be caused by both natural processes and human activity.

Global warming is one aspect of climate change.

However, the BASIC countries have now affirmed that the UN climate convention (UNFCCC) should be the sovereign body for international climate talks.

More than 120 countries have sent letters to the UNFCCC secretariat saying whether or not they endorse the accord.

A majority do endorse it, but many with the rider that they see it as just a political declaration leading to a full-blown treaty at some stage, and certainly not be a replacement for such a treaty.

Sources said the US was "bullying" small developing countries into endorsing the accord, claiming they would not be eligible for financial help from rich nations unless they did so.

Whereas this accusation appears to be straining relations that were already stretched, there are signs that the EU is preparing to give ground on one of the major demands of developing countries – that further emissions cuts for rich countries are made under the Kyoto Protocol.

In a strategy document released last week, the UK said it was prepared to consider the idea; and other EU leaders are also reportedly sympathetic.

"This is a pretty good first step," said Mr Khor. "It's not enough, but if more countries in the EU take this position, that could be the foundation of something that could be a salvation to this situation."

However, if the EU did formally move in this direction, it would put the bloc at odds with traditional allies such as the US, Canada and Japan.

Exercise 1 Find these words and word combinations in the text.

a)политическая воля

b)всеобщий договор

d)стороны, придерживающиеся противоположного мнения

e)готовить проект

f)содержать уступки

g)сократить выбросы

Exercise 2 Fill in the appropriate prepositions.

1.It will be very difficult to keep the rise of average global temperatures ___ preindustrial times ___ 2C.

2.A pattern of change affecting global or regional climate may be caused ___ both natural processes and human activity.

3.The US administration is skeptical ___ the ability to get a full-blown legal deal that replaces the Kyoto Protocol.

4.UN climate convention should be the sovereign body ___ international climate talks.

5.The US was pressing small countries ___ endorsing the accord.

6. Tthe EU is preparing to give ground ___ further emissions cuts ___ rich countries.

7.If more countries in the EU take this position, that could be the foundation of something that could be a salvation ___ this situation.

Exercise 3 Match these idioms and their definitions.

Exercise 4 Answer these questions.

1.What is climate change?

2.Is it caused by natural processes or human activity?

3.What measures should all countries take to stop global warming process?

4.Do you think a global all inclusive binding environment protection accord is likely to be signed in the nearest future?

Total : 23

Your score :_________________

TEXT 5.

Florence Educational Scientific and Cultural Agreement

adopted by the General Conference of Unesco at Florence, Italy

Preamble

The contracting States,

Considering that the free exchange of ideas and knowledge and, in general, the widest possible dissemination of the diverse forms of self-expression used by civilizations are vitally important both for intellectual progress and international understanding, and consequently for the maintenance of world peace;

Considering that this interchange is accomplished primarily by means of books, publications and educational, scientific and cultural materials;

Considering that the Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization urges co-operation between nations in all branches of intellectual activity….,

Recognize that these aims will be effectively furthered by an international agreement facilitating the free flow of books, publications and educational, scientific and cultural materials; and

Have, therefore, agreed to the following provisions:

Article I

I. The contracting States undertake not to apply customs duties or other charges on, or in connection with, the importation of:

Books, publications and documents, educational, scientific and cultural materials, listed in Annexes to this Agreement; ………..

Article II

1. The contracting States undertake to grant the necessary licenses and/or foreign exchange for the importation of the following articles:

(a)Books and publications consigned to public libraries and collections and to the libraries and collections of public, educational, research or cultural institutions;

(b)Official government publications, that is, official, parliamentary and administrative documents published in their country of origin;

(c)Books and publications of the United Nations or any of its Specialized Agencies;

(d)Books and publications received by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and distributed free of charge by it or under its supervision;

(e)Publications intended to promote tourist travel outside the country of importation, sent and distributed free of charge;

(f)Articles for the blind: ….

Article III

1. The contracting States undertake to give every possible facility to the importation of educational, scientific or cultural materials, which are imported exclusively for showing at a public exhibition approved by the competent authorities of the importing country and for subsequent reexportation. These facilities shall include the granting of the necessary licenses and exemption from customs duties and internal taxes and charges of all kinds payable on importation, other than fees and charges corresponding to the approximate cost of services rendered…...

Article IV

The contracting States undertake that they will as far as possible:

(a)Continue their common efforts to promote by every means the free circulation of educational, scientific or cultural materials, and abolish or reduce any restrictions to that free circulation which are not referred to in this Agreement;

(b)Simplify the administrative procedure governing the importation of educational, scientific or cultural materials;