4. Informal morphology and syntax

Language is comprised of sounds, words, phrases and sentences.  At all levels, language is rule-based. At the sound level, phonology refers to the rules of the sound system and the rules of sound combination.  At the word level, morphology refers to the structure and construction of words.  Morphology skills require an understanding and use of the appropriate structure of a word, such as word roots, prefixes, and affixes (called morphemes).  Strong knowledge of grammatical morphemes, such as use of –ing for a present progressive verb, /s/ to indicate a plural form and correct use of verb tense, is necessary in order to have well developed morphology skills.  Syntax refers to the rules of word order and word combinations in order to form phrases and sentences.

5. Syntactical expressive means: elliptical and one-member sentences

One-member sentences are mostly used in descriptions and in emotional speech. They consist of a main member of the sentence (either of nominal or verbal origin) which can be unextended or extended:

Home! (nominal unextended)

Sweet home! (nominal extended)

To come. To see. To conquer, (verbal unextended)

To come home! To see your folks! (verbal extended)

A two-member sentence is classed as elliptical (incomplete) when either of or even both main members of the sentence are absent from the sentence structure but can be easily recovered. Ellipsis (grammatical omission) regularly occurs in conversation in replies and questions.

Here are some examples of elliptical sentences, with an indication of what has been omitted:

Who's done it? — Tom (has done it). (The predicate is missing.)

Will she come? — (I) Hope so. (The subject is missing.)

How do you feel? — (I feel) Strange (The subject and a part of the predicate are missing.)

Where have you sprung from? — (I've sprung from the) Back yard. (Both the subject and the predicate are physically absent from the structure of the sentence.)

6. Styl. Coloring and reference to meaning. Denotation and connotation

Stylistic coloring is characteristic of the words that have their typical sphere of use – sphere that is associated with them. Stylistic coloring depends on the language division into certain subsystems that are called functional styles of language. Stylistic coloring shouldn’t be confused with stylistic function. The first belongs to the language, the second – to the text. Neutral words form the bulk of the English vocabulary. But they are not considered as having a special stylistic coloring, whereas both literary and colloquial words have a definite stylistic coloring.

Common literary words are used in writing and in polished speech. Literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units. This is especially apparent when pairs of synonyms are formed. (kid – child – infant).

Stylistic difference may be of various kinds: it may lie in the emotional tension connoted in a word, or in the sphere of implication, or in the degree of the quality denoted. Colloq. words are emotionally more colored than literary ones. The spoken language abounds in set expressions which are colloq. in character.

The denotation of a word or phrase is its explicit or direct meaning. Another way to think of it is as the associations that a word usually elicits for most speakers of a language, as distinguished from those elicited for any individual speaker because of personal experience.

The connotation of a word or phrase is the associated or secondary meaning; it can be something suggested or implied by a word or thing, rather than being explicitly named or described.

For example, the words home and house have similar denotations or primary meanings: a home is “a shelter that is the usual residence of a person, family, or household,” and a house is “a building in which people live.” However, for many, these terms carry different associations or secondary meanings, also known as connotations. Many people would agree that home connotes a sense of belonging and comfort, whereas house conveys little more than a structure.

The connotation of a word depends on cultural context and personal associations, but the denotation of a word is its standardized meaning within the English language. One way to remember the difference between the terms is to take a hint from the prefixes: con– comes from Latin and means “together; with,” reminding us that the connotation of a word works with or alongside its more explicit meaning or denotation.