Module 1 Concepts: Prepositions

Prepositions are structure-class words that precede a noun phrase, which is the object of the preposition. A preposition can be simple or phrasal. Together, the preposition and its object form a unit that can modify form-class words. To repeat, a preposition followed by a noun phrase functioning as its object is a prepositional phrase.

Simple prepositions consist of one word. English has many prepositions. Common simple prepositions include about, across, around, before, beside, by, concerning, during, from, including, like, near, of, opposite, pending, regarding, since, through, until, via, and without.

Phrasal prepositions consist of two or more words. Common phrasal prepositions include according to, apart from, because of, by virtue of, down from, except for, for the sake of, in addition to, in place of, in regard to, instead of, off of, on behalf of, outside of, regardless of, short of, together with, and up to.

Prepositions occur before a noun phrase (in the “pre-position”).

• under the blanket

• over the top

• in the green shirt

Prepositions connect their object to other words or phrases in a sentence. This connection modifies the other words or phrases:

We hurried to the store.

The prepositional phrase to the store modifies our hurrying by telling you where we hurried to.

We drove without concern for the speed limit.

The prepositional phrase without concern for the speed limit modifies our driving by telling you we drove fast.

We needed a bucket of that ice cream with the Snickers bars mixed in.

With the Snickers bars mixed in modifies the ice cream by telling you which kind it was.

Module 1 Concepts: Conjunctions

The structure class of conjunctions consists of three types: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs. Each type of conjunction joins together grammatical units in a particular way.

Coordinating conjunctions can:

• join words: peanut butter and jelly

• join phrases: very tasty but rather fattening

• join clauses: after he ate dinner yet before his food had digested

• join sentences: Stan didn’t want his dog begging at the table, so he put the dog outside.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions. You can memorize them using the acronym FANBOYS: for, and, not, but, or, yet, so.

The coordinators join grammatical structures of similar form, such as words to words and sentences to sentences. These connections create compound sentences.

I like peanut butter. I like jelly. à I like peanut butter and jelly.

And joins two nouns: peanut butter, jelly

I ate a sandwich. I also drank a glass of milk. à I not only ate a sandwich but also drank a glass of milk.

Not only…but also is a correlative conjunction (a coordinating conjunctionpaired with other words to extend its meaning) that joins two phrases.

I ate a sandwich. I was still hungry. à I ate a sandwich, yet I was still hungry.

Yet joins two complete sentences, making a compound sentence.

Once joined, these grammatical structures function as a single grammatical unit.

Correlative conjunctions are a subclass of coordinating conjunctions. They consist of one of the coordinating conjunctions paired with other words that extend or modify their meanings: both…and, either…or, neither…nor, etc.

The grammatical structures that follow each of a correlative conjunction’s parts must be of similar form:

• noun-noun: both students and faculty

• verb phrase-verb phrase: not only composes the music but also writes the lyrics

• clause-clause: Either you know the answer or you don’t.

Subordinating conjunctions can:

• join subordinate (dependent) clauses to main (independent) clauses:

  • He couldn’t order a steak dinner [main] because he had forgotten his wallet [subordinate].

  • In order to pay for his dinner [subordinate], he washed dishes [main].

Unlike coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions create complex sentences by joining unequal grammatical structures: independent and dependent clauses. The independent clause can stand on its own as a sentence; the dependent clause requires the independent clause to make a complete sentence:

Harold sang old sea ditties while he prepared dinner.

Harold sang old sea ditties makes a complete sentence (independent clause).

while he prepared dinner only works with Harold sang old sea ditties (dependent clause).

CAUTION: Subordinating conjunctions can seem very similar to conjunctive adverbs. You can tell them apart by checking whether the conjunction alone or the entire clause it contains can be moved in the sentence:

He shortened his talk so that they could ask questions.

*He shortened his talk they could so that ask questions.

So that they could ask questions, he shortened his talk.

Because the entire clause can be moved but the conjunction alone cannot, so that is a coordinating conjunction that creates a dependent clause.

He shortened his talk; consequently, they could ask questions.

He shortened his talk; they could, consequently, ask questions.

*Consequently, they could ask questions; he shortened his talk.

Because the conjunction alone can be moved within its clause, but the whole clause cannot be moved within the sentence, consequently is a conjunctive adverb in an independent clause.

Conjunctive adverbs can:

• connect and signal relationships between two sentences:

  • He was looking forward to a steak dinner; however, he couldn’t pay for it.

  • The experience was mortifying. Afterwards, he didn’t tell anyone about it.

Conjunctive adverbs are like conjunctions in that they connect and signal relationships between two sentences but are like adverbs in the kinds of meaning they express. They include words and phrases such as however (expressing contrast), also (expressing addition), accordingly (expressing cause and effect), for example (expressing an example), and earlier (expressing time).

Grammatically, the clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs retain their status as independent sentences. Therefore, they are punctuated with either semicolons or periods, NOT commas:

• I’d like the red beans and rice; however I should stick with soup since my stomach is upset.

• He’s an inveterate speeder. Consequently, he’s gotten a dozen moving violations.

• We’re going to the movies. Afterwards