This simplified map shows the shape of the Great Roman Empire and various incursions into it from outside.

b) Scandinavian borrowings. The Scandinavian era in Britain started in 793 A.D. That time both England and the whole Europe got to know who were those “Norsemen” in long dragon-headed ships. The borrowings of the Scandinavian origin were basically the words of common usage, widely spread and rurally characterized. As usual, these words doubled the meaning of the words that were already presented in the language of the British Isles. Compare: angry \ wroth, taken \ niman, \ they \ hi, heo, he etc. Scandinavian borrowings were not only commonly spread words, but also words which brought derivatives: hap – haphazard – hapless – happen – happening – happy - happiness – happily; weak – weaken – weak – headed – weak – kneed – weakling – weakness etc. many words denoting parts of human body were also borrowed from the Scandinavian languages. The following words also have the Scandinavian origin: no, from, till, until, same etc.

The examples of dragon-headed ships of the Vikings

Famous helmets of the Vikings

(Though we dare to associate the Vikings with these magnificent hats and helmets the mentioned articles of clothing didn’t belong to them and were worn by the Celts, nevertheless a lot of stories and legends, sagas and myths are coincided with the vikingish horn-helmets in particular).

Some words that were borrowed by the English language from the Scandinavian languages:

Современное английское слово	Перевод
calf	икра (ноги)
leg	нога, голень
skin	кожа
skull	череп
bull	бык
kid	детеныш
reindeer	северный олень
axle	ось
band	связка, ремешок, полоса
bank	насыпь, берег реки
birth	рождение
boon	благо, удобство
crook	крюк
dirt	грязь
down	пух
dregs	осадки, отбросы
egg	яйцо
gait	походка
gap	щель, зазор
hap	судьба, случай
knife	нож
loan	заем, ссуда
race	гонки, скачки
reef	риф (на парусе)
rift	трещина
root	корень
score	счет, задолженность
snare	ловушка
stack	стог, куча
steak	кусок мяса
tidings	известия
awkward	неуклюжий
flat	плоский
happy	счастливый
loose	незакрепленный, свободный
low	низкий
meek	кроткий
odd	случайный, странный
rotten	гнилой
rugged	шершавый, грубый
sly	хитрый
tight	тесный, тугой
ugly	уродливый
to call	звать
to cast	бросать
to clasp	зажимать
to clip	стричь
to crave	страстно желать
to crawl	ползти
to drown	тонуть, топить
to droop	свисать, изнемогать
to flit	мелькать
to gape	зиять, зевать, глазеть
to gasp	задыхаться
to lug	волочить
to nag	ворчать, изводить
to rake	сгребать, ворошить
to skulk	красться, скрываться
to snub	унижать
to thrive	преуспевать

Task V. Match the Scandinavian words with their English derivatives:

Deyia – Die

Drit – Dirt

Balkr – Bulk

Geta – Get

Husbondi – Husband

Mugge - Mug

Knifr - Knife

Kalla – Call

Take – Take

Gefta – Gift

Lauss – Loose

Skil - Skill

Skor – Score

Kasta – Cast

Vanta – Want

Rot – Rot

Peir - They

Task VI. Match the explanations with the words they denote:

Öfugr = “turned backward” awkward

Klubba = “cudgel” , club

Gaman = “joy, glee” game

Kalla = “cry loudly” call

Oddi = “third number” odd

Mistaka = “miscarry” mistake

Sky = “cloud” sky

Skirra = “to frighten” scare

Uggligr = “dreadful” ugly

Prift = “prosperity” thrift

Blundra = “shut one's eye” Blunder

Skil = “distinction” skill

Skata = “fish” skate

Ski = “snowshoe” ski

Ladd = “young man” lad

Vindauga = “wind-eye” window

Scor = “twenty” score

Task VII. Read the text about the Germanic pantheon of Gods. Do the exercises afterwards.