Supplementary file

Appendix 1. Additional articles

Unit 1

Text 1. Undergraduate Education: Types of Schools

Two main categories of institutions of higher learning are public and private. All schools get money from tuition and from private contributors. However, public schools are also supported by the state in which they’re located. Private schools do not receive state funding. As a result, tuition is generally lower at public schools, especially for permanent residents of that state. A third category is the proprietary (for-profit) school. These usually teach a particular workplace skill. Some of these schools are quite expensive.

Schools can also be grouped by the types of programs and degrees they offer. The three major groups are community colleges, 4-year colleges, and universities. Community colleges (sometimes called junior colleges) offer only the first 2 years of undergraduate studies (the freshman and sophomore years). They enroll about 5 million students a year. Most community colleges are public schools, supported by local and / or state funds. They serve two general types of students: those taking the first 2 years of college before they transfer to a 4-year school for their third and fourth (junior and senior) years and those enrolled n 1- or 2-year job-training programs. Community colleges offer training in many areas, such as health occupations, office skills, computer-science, police work, and automotive repair.

What is the difference between a college and a university? Size is only part of the answer. Some colleges have a student body of just a few hundred, while some state universities serve more than 100,000 students on several campuses? A university is usually bigger than a college because the scope of its programs is much greater. A university offers a wider range of undergraduate programs plus graduate studies. Part of the responsibility of a university is to encourage its faculty and graduate students to do research to advance human knowledge. Colleges, on the other hand, are primarily undergraduate schools. They have no obligation to conduct research.

Many excellent colleges are liberal arts schools, which means that they offer studies in the humanities, languages, mathematics, social sciences, and sciences. Liberal arts colleges generally do not offer degrees in engineering, business, journalism, education (teacher training), and many other specific vocations that a student can prepare for at a university.

Some colleges specialize in training students for one occupation (as agricultural colleges and teachers’ colleges do). Many undergraduate institutions that are not called colleges also provide higher education in one specific occupation – for example, conservatories for music students, seminaries for students of religion, and fine arts schools for artists. For those wishing to prepare for military careers, the U.S. government maintains four military academies.

At colleges and universities, the academic year is about 9 months long (usually from September until early June or from late August until May). After completing 4 academic years with acceptable grades in an approved course of study, the student earns a bachelor’s degree. Some students complete college in less than 4 years by attending summer sessions. At most colleges, the academic year is divided into either two semesters or three quarters, excluding the summer session. College grades, from highest to lowest, are usually А, В, C, D, and F (a failing grade). Generally, students must keep а С average to remain in school.

Check your comprehension

~ What are three differences between a college and a university?

Graduate Education

American universities offer three kinds of graduate degrees: master's degrees, Ph.D. degrees, and professional degrees (for example, in medicine, law, or engineering). In most fields, a master’s degree can be earned in 1 or 2 academic years of study beyond the B.S. or B.A. Earning a Ph.D. degree (doctor of philosophy) usually takes at least 3 years beyond the master’s. To receive a Ph.D. in most fields, students must pass oral and written examinations and produce a long and comprehensive research paper that makes an original contribution to their field. In some fields, Ph.D. candidates must also be able to read one or two foreign languages. Requirements are different for professional degrees.

In recent years, the graduate student population has become much more diverse than ever before. It now includes more women, foreign students, minority group members, older students, and part-time students. Also, the variety of degree programs offered has expanded greatly. Today’s graduate students can choose from master’s degrees in at least 1,000 fields and Ph.D.s in about 100 fields.

Check your comprehension

~ What are four requirements most Ph.D. applicants must fulfill?

Financing Higher Education

College costs vary quite a bit, depending upon the type of school. At expensive private schools, annual costs (including tuition, room, board, books, travel to and from home, etc.) may exceed $30,000. Public universities are much cheaper. At these schools, tuition is significantly higher for out-of-state students than for permanent residents of that state. Tuition at community colleges averages about $ 1,500, approximately half the in-state tuition at public, 4-year schools.

During the 1990s, the cost of higher education rose about 7.5% a year. Difficulties making ends meet create serious problems for many students. Older students with a family to support may try to work full time while carrying a full academic courseload. They forget to leave themselves time to eat, sleep, and relax.

For those who need financial assistance, help is available. There are three main types of financial aid: (1) scholarships (grants), which are gifts that students do not repay; (2) loans to students and / or their parents; and (3) student employment (work/ study), a part-time job that the school gives the student for the academic year. Most financial aid is need-based; that is, only students who need the money receive it. Financial assistance to excellent students who do not need the money (commonly called merit-based aid) is limited.

Funds for all this aid come from three main sources – the federal government, state governments, and private contributors. Every American college and university has a financial aid office to help students find out what kind of aid they might be eligible for and to assist them in completing the complicated application forms. Aliens who are permanent residents in the U.S. are eligible for government assistance, but foreign students are not.

Check your comprehension

~ What are three kinds of financial aid? Which one do you think students like most?

Standardized Tests and Their Uses

Various standardized tests help students demonstrate their knowledge to college admissions personnel. Adults who have not finished high school can take the GED (Test of General Educational Development). The GED involves five exams – writing skills, social studies, science, literature and the arts, and mathematics. The tests are available in English, French, and Spanish. Students can study for the GED by taking a review course or using a review book on their own. Students who pass the test earn a high school equivalency certificate.

High school seniors wishing to apply to competitive colleges and universities take standardized tests commonly called ACTs and SATs. The tests help students demonstrate the ability to do college level work. Most colleges use these scores plus the students’ high school grades to evaluate applicants. These tests are given several times a year throughout the U.S. and in other countries.

Students whose native language is not English will probably be required to take the TOEFL* (Test of English as a Foreign Language) when they apply for admission to a university. Students can study for the TOEFL and many other standardized tests by taking a review course or by working independently with a review book or computer program.

When students come to the U.S. after completing some college work in another country, they should bring a transcript of previous college work and have those credits evaluated by an authorized organization. The transcript will probably need to be translated into English. Students who cannot prove that they have completed certain college courses can take some of the CLEP (College Level Examination Program) tests to demonstrate their knowledge.

Standardized tests are also required to apply for admission to graduate schools. The counseling office of a student's present or prospective school can answer questions about requirements for acceptance to graduate programs.

Check your comprehension

~ What is the general purpose of standardized tests?

Lifelong Learning

In the U.S., the education of adults is a never-ending process going on in many different places for many different reasons. At least 76 million adults are enrolled in some type of classes, mostly as part-time students. The majority of these classes are taken not for credit but for knowledge that the student can use on the job, to pursue a hobby, or for personal growth. Many employees take classes at their workplace. Some companies pay the tuition when an employee goes back to school to learn a skill that the company needs. Noncredit programs, commonly called adult education or continuing education, are offered in many high schools, colleges, and museums. There are also private learning centers that offer inexpensive classes covering a wide variety of skills and activities. A typical catalog might have classes in how to cook a Chinese dinner, invest in the stock market, improve spelling, make friends, or even give your partner a massage.

Education, like everything else, takes advantage of technology. These days, students can be home with the family and go to school at the same time. They can take classes in their living rooms via TV. Many schools also offer distance learning – “attending” class and interacting with professors and classmates via the Internet. One 97-year-old man earned his Ph.D. that way!

In the U.S.A., technology rapidly makes some skills obsolete and new ones essential. Workers at all levels realize that lifelong learning is necessary. Even professional people – doctors, accountants, dentists, and engineers – continue to study to keep up with challenges in their fields. The American dream of becoming professionally and financially successful is most often achieved through higher education.