28. Лексична компетенція

Під поняттям “лексика” розуміють слова і словосполучення. Більшість слів багатозначні, і їх значення конкретизується лише у мовленні. Слово, відірване від живої мови, має мінімальні можливості асоціюватись з тими чи іншими поняттями. Саме тому слова і словосполучення потрібно засвоювати не в ізольованому вигляді, а в єдності трьох аспектів ─ лексики, граматики і фонетики.

Розріняють активний і пасивний лексичний запас. Активний запас порівняно обмежений. Він формується в результаті грунтовного опрацювання матеріалу і використовується у висловлюваннях і на письмі. Пасивний запас значна ширший і на його основі будується процес читання і сприймання чужого мовлення на слух. Ці категорії лексичного матеріалу постійно змінюються, зокрема розширюються в міру збагачення досвіду людини. У навчанні іноземних мов кожна з них потребує особливої уваги і формується протягом усього періоду навчання.

У роботі над лексикою іноземної мови необхідно розрізняти ознайомлення з словом або словосполученням і процес його засвоєння. Ознайомлення передбачає одночасну подачу форми лексичної одиниці (її слухового, артикуляційного, зорового або рукомоторного образу) та її значення, що зумовлює появу у свідомості учня потрібних асоціацій між матеріальним і смисловим планами слова або словосполучення. Подача лексичної одиниці короткотривала у часі, але вона може повторюватись двічі навіть тричі. Це сприяє засвоєнню слова, але ще не забезпечує оволодіння ним.

29. Фонетична компетенція

Фонетичний мінімум

Основою будь-якої мови є звук. Багато років мова існувала лише у звуковій формі. Усі види МД базуються на звуках. Роль звукових компонентів дуже важлива і в писемному мовленні. Моторна теорія мовлення підкреслює роль кінестезій у писемному мовленні: ми проговорюємо про себе те, що пишемо і читаємо. Оволодіння усним мовленням та читанням уголос взагалі неможливе без стійких слухо-вимовних та ритміко-інтонаційних навичок.

Навчання фонетичного матеріалу передбачає оволодіння учнями всіма звуками і звукосполученнями виучуваної іноземної мови, наголосом та основними інтонаційними моделями (інтонемами) найбільш поширених типів простих і складних речень.

Існує кілька критеріїв відбору фонетичного мінімуму. За ступенем трудності фонетичного явища об'єктом спеціального засвоєння при навчанні вимови є лише ті, що являють для учнів певні труднощі; за критерієм відповідності потребам спілкування до мінімуму передусім включаються ті звуки та інтонеми, що виконують у мовленні смислорозрізняльну функцію; за критерієм чормативності з фонетичного мінімуму для середніх навчальних закладів вилучаються всілякі відхилення від норми, а об'єктом навчання виступає повний стиль зразкової літературної вимови (за еталон береться вимова дикторів/ коментаторів радіо і телебачення).

Основними вимогами до вимови учнів є фонематичність та швидкість.

Фонематичність передбачає ступінь правильності фонетичного оформлення мовлення, достатню для того, щоб воно було зрозумілим для співрозмовника; швидкість — ступінь автоматизованості вимовних навичок, яка дозволяє учням говорити в нормальному (середньо-нормальному) темпі мовлення (для англійської та французької мови — 130-150 слів за хвилину).

При навчанні іншомовної вимови слід враховувати, що учні вже володіють звуковими засобами рідної мови та, в багатьох випадках, і другої мови (в Україні — української і російської, української і польської, української та угорської тощо). З одного боку, це допомагає в оволодінні вимовою нової (іноземної) мови, з іншого — викликає певні труднощі, спричинені

інтерференцією рідної мови. Джерелом помилок в інтонації є, наприклад, відсутність в українській і російській мовах високого початку та різкого падіння у спадному тоні, що характерно для англійського мовлення. Таким чином у плані навчання вимови вчитель повинен скоректувати ті фонетичні навички, що вже є в учнів, у відповідності до фонетичної системи нової мови і доповнити її тими елементами вимови, які відсутні в рідній або другій мові учнів.

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4. The word-group theory

There are two approaches to "a phrase definition":

1) a phrase is syntagmatic unity of two or more notional word ( to read a letter, an iron door)

2) a phrase is any grammatically organised group of words ( on the table, from behind (a tree), because of (you).

The word-combination (or phrase) is a naming unit like a separate word though phrases name things and their properties in a more complicated word than a separate word.

The fundamental difference between a phrase and a sentence: phrases remain naming units while sentences are units of communication: because we communicate with each other with the help of sentences: simple or complex.

A syntactic bond is a connection between words or groups of words in a flow of speech.

The main types of syntactic bonds:

- coordination

- subordination

Coordinate phrases are such phrases whose components are equal in their syntactical rank, that is, syntactically independent of each other. They may be syndetical and asyndetical. Syndetical phrases are used with coordinative subjunctive (boys and girls, not only the trees but even the bushes), but asyndetical ones are used without them (went swimming, boy, girl)

Subordinate word-combination consist of a head-word ( the nuclear) and a tail-word ( the adjuct) which is syntactically dependent on the head-word: fresh milk, John's house, a man of property.

Many grammarians (Бархударов) also point out the so-called predictive word-combinations which are based on the predictive type of connection between the components. Such word combinations belong all the predictive constructions (complexes) with so-called secondary predication: the objective - with the infinitive (participle), constructions, the subjective - with infinitive (participle) constructions, the for-phrase, the nominative absolute participle construction. E.g. I saw him run; He stepped aside for me to pass - the parts of such constructions are considered to be independent and equel.

Subordinate phrases may be classified according to the part of speech representing the heard word (or nuclear):

- noun-phrases: a stone wall, Joh's book,a man of property.

- verb-phrases: to read a book, to run quickly.

- adjectival-phrases: very nice, nice of appearance.

- pronominal-phrases: something to eat, nothing of value.

The tail-words of subordinate phrases may be subordinated to their head-words with the help of the following kinds of subordinative connection:

-agreement

-government

-adjoining (juxtaposition)

Agreement is such a means of expressing syntactic dependence when the tail-word takes a grammatical form (of case, number, etc) identical to that of the head-word: this book - these books; that book - girls books (agreement in number).

Жлуктенко said about the cases of agreement in English:

1) demonstrative pronouns agree in number with the noun head-word

2) indefinite articles agree with nouns in number - pan - pans

3) the predicate in some cases agree in number and person with the subject: she goes, she rides.

4) agreement is found in the case of sequenceof tenses: she asked that she heard him

Government is the use of the dependent word in a certain (but not identical) grammatical form required by its head-word. In other words, the form of dependent word doesn't coinside with the form of the head-word itself:we saw him (but not he).This example is an example so-called "prepositionless government". There also exist "prepositional government": to look at her (but not she).

Adjoining is the most widespread means of expressing syntactic relations within a subordinate phrase in modern English.

Adjoining or juxtaposition is such a means of expressing syntactical dependencets within a subordinate phrase when the constituents are joined without any specific change of the form of the dependent word, but only by their mutual position, the dependent grammatical function of the tail word and the meanings of the head-word and the tail-word: a new house, a stone wall, to go quickly, bird cage.

Most syntactical descriptions of a language distinguish different types of work-groups:

In accordance with their structure and complexity phrases may be subdivided into elementary and compound.

Elementary are such phrases in which only one type of syntactic connection is represented: an old house, very old houses, very old wooden houses - in all these phrases only the subordination is observed.

Compound words-groups consist of structurally complicated components: writing and reading letters, to see Mike driving a car. The number of items which can appear as constituents of compound word-groups is theoretically unlimited.

According to semantic unity between the components word-groups may be:

1) syntactically free combinations of words in which the elements don't repeatedly co-occur: to analyse murder, to condemn murder.

2) idiomatically bound word-combinations (idioms) whose meanings don't reflect the meanings of their component part: to scream blue murder (to complain very loudly).

3) fixed non-idiomatically word-combinations (collocations) in which the elements are specifically bond to each other, though the meanings reflect the meaning of the collocation (in contrast to idioms): to commit murder.

Combinability of words in a word-group depends on the lexical and grammatical meanings.

3. The sentence

The sentence is basic unit of syntax. There exist many definitions of the sentences, but none of them is generally accepted. But in the majority of cases speakers actually experience no difficulty in separating one sentence from another in their native language. This is reflected in writing, where the graphic form of each sentence is separated by different marks.

Though a sentence contains words, it is not merely a group of words (or other units), but something integral, a structural unity built in accordance with one of the patterns existing in a given language. All the sounds of a sentence are united by typical intonation.

All the meanings are interlaced according to some patterns to make one communication.

A communication is a directed thought, there exists a system of coordinates to fix the position or direction of a thought in speech. Naturally, only phenomena present as every act of speech can serve as the axis of coordinates. They are:

1) the act of speech;

2) the speaker (the writer);

3) reality (as viewed by the speaker).

These three relations can be summarised as the relation to the situation of speech. The relation of the thought of a sentence to the situation of speech is called predicativity. This is the name of the system of coordinates directing the thought of a sentence and distinguishing a sentence from any group of words. Predicativity is an essential part of the content of the sentence.

The sentence can thus be defined as a communication unit made up of words ( word combinations) in conformity with their combinability, united by predicativity and intonation. - Хаймович

Gurge Curme gives such: A sentence is an expression of a thought or feeling by means of a word or words united in such form and manner as to convey the meaning entended.

The sentence is a communicative unit, therefore, the primary classification of sentences must be based on the communicative principle. According to the purpose of communication three types have been recognized in traditional grammar.

The declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative, or negative, and stands in correlation with the listener’s responding signals of attention, feeling etc.

E.g. He (didn’t) shut the window.

The imperative sentence expresses inducement (стимул), either affirmative or negative. It urges the listener in the form of request or command to perform or not to perform a certain action.

E.g. (Don’t) Shut the window, please. 

The interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. a request for information wanted by the speaker from thelistener.

E.g. Did he shut the window?

But some scholars distinguish so-called exclamatory sentence. Exclamatory sentences are marked by specific intonation patterns (represented by an exclamation mark in written speech), word-order and special constructions with functional-auxiliary words, rendering the high emotional intensity of the utterance

E.g. Do come in!

From the point of view of their structure sentences can be divided into: simple sentences and composite sentence

Simple sentences:

Two-membered sentence contains two principle parts — the subject and the predicate. (Fleur had established immediate contact with an architect).

A two-membered sentence can be complete and incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate (Young John could not help smiling). It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and they are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue (Where were you yesterday? At the cinema).

One-membered sentence have only one principal part (Dusk — of a summer night).

Simple sentences, both two-membered and one-membered can be unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principle parts is called an unextended sentence. She is a student. Birds fly. Winter!

An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, adverbial modifiers).  The two native woman stole furtive glances at Sarie.

Composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative groups. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses   a complicated thought reflecting two or more elementary situational events.

Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it that corresponds to a separate sentence as a part  of a contextual sequence.

Composite sentence displays two principal types of the connection of clauses — subordination and coordination.

According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to be classed into:

compound sentences (coordinating their clauses),

complex (subordinating their clauses).

A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:

1) syndetically, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore, etc.)

E.g. The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted.

2) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.

E.g.  The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.

The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinativety are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, casual, consequental, resultative.

A complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:

1) Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.

E.g.  more and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul.

2) Asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.

E.g.  I wish you had come earlier.

A subordinate clause may follow, interrupt or precede the principal clause.

According to the grammatical function subordinate clauses can be divided into: subject, predicative, object and adverbial (of time, place, purpose, cause, condition, concession, result, manner, comparison).

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Історія англійської мови:

1. Historical periods and approaches to the chronological divisions in the history of English.

The historical development of a language is a continuous uninterrupted process without sudden breaks or rapid transformations. That is why any division of language history into certain stretches of time might appear artificial. Yet divisions into periods are necessary while learning the history of the language or while doing some researches.

The commonly accepted, traditional division of the history of English belongs to Henry Sweet, the English scholar (1849 – 1912), the author of a number of works on the English language and its history. This division is based on the phonological and morphological characteristics of the unstressed endings with boundaries attached to definite dates and historical events affecting the language.

It’s classified to Old English, Middle English and New English.

It is natural that amendments are proposed to the traditional chronological limits of the periods. Professor T. A. Rastorguyeva adds a pre-written or pre-historic period which goes back to the V c. when the West Germanic Invasion took place. She also divides the above mentioned periods into two parts pointing out their cultural peculiarities. As far as we see, this division does not contradict the traditional approach and fits quite well into a conception of English History.

Nevertheless, some foreign scholars exaggerating the French influence on the English language consider that the History of the English language as a German one was over in the Anglo-Saxon, Old English period. Ch. Balley and K. Maroldt in their paper “The French Lineage of English” treat Modern English as a Creol language, the mixture of English and French. Analysing the changes in all the layers of the language we can prove that English phonetics, vocabulary, grammar and syntax did not stop their existence in the XI c., but acquired new features due to the historical development.

The historical development of a language is a continuous uninterrupted process without sudden breaks or rapid transformations. Therefore any periodization imposed on language history by linguists, with precise dates, might appear artificial, if not arbitrary. Yet in all language histories divisions into periods and cross-sections of a certain length, are used for teaching and research purposes. The commonly accepted, traditional periodization divides English history into three periods: Old English (OE), Middle English (ME) and New English (NE). OE begins with the Germanic settlement of Britain (5th c.) and ends with the Norman Conquest (1066); ME begins with the Norman Conquest and ends on the introduction of printing (1475), which is the start of the New English period (NE) which lasts to the present day.

A famous English scholar Henry Sweet divides the three main periods into early, classical, and late. Division into chronological periods is based on two aspects: external and internal (extra-linguistic and intra-linguistic). The following periodization of English history is based on the above-mentioned three periods; it subdivides the history of the English language into seven periods differing in linguistic situation and the nature of linguistic changes.

1. The first – pre-written or pre-historical – period, which may be termed Early Old English, lasts from the West Germanic invasion of Britain till the beginning of writing, i.e. from the 5th to the end of the 7th c. It is the stage of tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders (Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians). The tribal dialects were used for oral communication; there was no written form of English. The English of this period has been reconstructed from the written evidence of other Old Germanic languages, especially Gothic, and from later OE written records.

2. The second historical period extends from the 8th c. till the end of the 11th century. The English language of that time is referred to as Old English or Anglo-Saxon; it can also be called Written OE as compared with the pre-written Early OE period. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional dialects: West Saxon, Kentish, Mercian and Northumbrian. With the rise of the Kingdom of Wessex, the West Saxon dialect prevailed and most written records of this period have survived in this dialect. OE was a typical Old Germanic language, with a purely Germanic vocabulary, and few foreign borrowings. OE was an inflected or “synthetic” language with a well-developed system of morphological categories, especially in the noun and adjective. Therefore, Henry Sweet called OE the “period of full endings”.

3. The third period, known as Early Middle English, starts after 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and covers the 12th, 13th and half of the 14th c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian and French. Under Norman rule the official language in England was French, or rather its variety called Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman; it was also the dominant language of literature. The local dialects were mainly used for oral communication and were little employed in writing. Towards the end of the period their literary prestige grew, as English began to displace French in the sphere of writing, as well as in many other spheres. Early ME was a time of great changes at all the levels of the language, especially in lexis and grammar. English absorbed two layers of lexical borrowings: the Scandinavian element in the North-Eastern area (due to the Scandinavian invasions since the 8th c.) and the French element in the speech of townspeople in the South-East, especially in the upper social classes (due to the Norman Conquest). Numerous phonetic and grammatical changes took place in this period. Grammatical alterations were so drastic that by the end of the period they had transformed English from a highly inflected language into a mainly analytical one. Therefore, H. Sweet called Middle English the period of “leveled endings”.

4. The fourth period – from the later 14th c. till the end of the 15th century – embraces the age of Chaucer, the greatest English medieval writer and forerunner of the English Renaissance. We may call it Late or Classical Middle English. It was the time of the restoration of English to the position of the state and literary language and the time of literary flourishing. The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mixed dialect of London. The literary authority of other dialects was gradually overshadowed by the prestige of the London written language. In periods of literary efflorescence, like the age of Chaucer, the pattern set by great authors becomes a more or less fixed form of language. Chaucer’s language was a recognized literary form, imitated throughout the 15th c. Literary flourishing had a stabilizing effect on language, so that the rate of linguistic changes was slowed down. The written records of the late 14th and 15th c. testify to the growth of the English vocabulary and to the increasing proportion of French loan-words in English. The phonetic and grammatical structure had undergone fundamental changes. Most of the inflections in the nominal system – in nouns, adjectives, pronouns – had fallen together. H. Sweet called Middle English the period of “levelled endings”.

5. The fifth period – Early New English – lasted from the introduction of printing and embraced age of Shakespeare. This period started in 1475 and ended in 1660. The first printed book in English was published by William Caxton in 1475. This period is a sort of transition between two literary epochs - the age of Chaucer and the age of Shakespeare (also known as the Literary Renaissance).Caxton’s English of the printed books was a sort of bridge between the London literary English of the ME period and the language of the Literary Renaissance. The London dialect had risen to prominence as a compromise between the various types of speech prevailing in the country and formed the basis of the growing national literary language. In this period the country became economically and politically unified; the changes in the political and social structure, the progress of culture, education, and literature led to linguistic unity. Thus, the national English language was developed. Early New English was a period of great changes at all levels, especially lexical and phonetic. The progress of culture and economy led to the growth of the vocabulary. New words appeared from internal and external sources. As for the phonetic changes, the vowel system was greatly transformed, which resulted in the growing gap between the written and the spoken forms of the word (that is, between pronunciation and spelling). The loss of most inflectional endings in the 15th c. justifies the definition “period of lost endings” given by H. Sweet to the NE period.

6. The sixth period lasts from the mid-17th c. to the end of the 18th c. It is called “the age of normalization and correctness”. The norms of literary language were fixed as rules. Numerous dictionaries and grammar-books were published and spread through education and writing. During this period the English language extended its area far beyond the borders of the British Isles, first of all to North America. The 18th c. is called the period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great vowel shift was over and pronunciation was stabilized. Word usage and grammatical constructions were also stabilized. The formation of new verbal grammatical categories was completed. Syntactical structures were perfected and standardized.

7. The English language of the 19th and 20th c. represents the seventh period in the history of English – Late New English or Modern English. By the 19th c. English had acquired all the properties of a national language. The classical language of literature was strictly distinguished from the local dialects. The dialects were used only in oral communication. The “best” form of English, the Received Standard, was spread through new channels: the press, radio, cinema and television. The expansion of English overseas was due to the growth of the British Empire in the 19th c. and with the increased weight of the United States. English has spread to all the inhabited continents. Some geographical varieties of English are now recognized as independent variants of the language. In the 19th and 20th c. the English vocabulary has grown due to the rapid progress of technology, science, trade and culture. There have been certain linguistic changes in phonetics and grammar: some pronunciations and forms have become old-fashioned, while other forms have been accepted as common usage. It is apparent that an English speaker of the 21st century uses a form of language different from that used by the characters of Dickens or Thackeray one hundred and eighty years ago. Therefore we may be fully justified in treating the 19th and 20th c. as one historical period in a general survey of the history of English. But in order to describe the kind of English used today and to determine the tendencies at work now, the span of the last forty or fifty years can be singled out as the final stage of development, or as a cross-section representing Present-day English.

2. Old English dialects.

The Germanic tribes who settled in Britain in the 5th and 6th c. spoke closely related tribal dialects belonging to the West Ger­manic subgroup. Their common origin and their separation from other related tongues as well as their joint evolution in Britain transformed them eventually into a single tongue, English. Yet, at the early stages of their development in Britain the dialects remained disunited. On the one hand, the OE dialects acquired certain common features which distinguished them from continental Germanic tongues; on the other hand, they displayed growing regional divergence. The feudal system was setting in and the dialects were entering a new phase; tribal dialectal division was superseded by geographical division, in other words, tribal dialects were transformed into local or regional dialects.

The following four principal OE dialects are commonly distinguished: Kentish, a dialect spoken in the area known now as Kent and Surrey and in the Isle of Wight. It had developed from the tongue of the Jufes and Frisians. The West dialect is represented by the works of kind Alfred (lived 849-900), both original compositions of translations of Latin texts, also by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (till 891), works of the abbot Aelfric (10 century) and sermons of Wultstan (early 11thcentury)

West Saxon, the main dialect of the Saxon group, spoken in the rest of England south of the Thames and the Bristol Channel, except Wales and Cornwall, where Celtic tongues were preserved. Other Saxon dialects in England have not survived in written form and are not known to modern scholars. The superiority of the West - Saxon dialect both in quantity and importance of the documents using it contirms its dominating position as the literary language of the period. The epic poems of the OE period:Beowulf, Genesis, Exodus, Judith, and poems by the monk Gynewulf: Eleng Andreas, Julianaand other were written in Anglian dialect but have been kept in West-Saxon dialect.

Mercian, a dialect derived from the speech of southern Angles and spoken chiefly in the kingdom of Mercia, that is, in the central region, from the Thames to the Humber.

Northumbrian, another Anglian dialect, spoken from the Humber north to the river Forth (hence the name — North-Humbrian).

The distinction between Mercian and Northumbrian as local OE dialects testifies to the new foundations of the dialectal division: region­al in place of tribal, since according to the tribal division they represent one dialect, Anglian.

As we know OE scribes used two kinds of letters: the runes and the letters of the Latin alphabet. Like any alphabetic writing, OE writing was based on a phonetic principle: every letter indicated a separate sound. Some of OE letters indicated two or more sounds, according to their positional variants in the word.

The boundaries between the dialects were uncertain and probably Movable, The dialects passed into one another imperceptibly and dialectal forms were freely borrowed from one dialect into another; however, information is scarce and mainly pertains to the later part of the OE period. Throughout this period the dialects enjoyed relative equality; none of them was the dominant form of speech, each being the main type used over a limited area.

As mentioned above, by the 8th c. the centre of English culture had shifted to Northumbria, which must have brought the Northumbrian dialect to the fore; yet, most of the writing at that time was done in Latin or, perhaps, many OE texts have perished. In the 9th c. the polit­ical and cultural centre moved to Wessex. Culture and education made great progress there; it is no wonder that the West Saxon dialect has been preserved in a greater number of texts than all the other OE dia­lects put together. Towards the 11th c. the written form of the West Saxon dialect developed into a bookish type of language, which, prob­ably, served as the language of writing for all English-speaking people.

It follows from the above description that the changes in the linguistic situation justify the distinction of two historical periods. In Early OE from the 5th to the 7th c. the would-be English language consisted of a group of spoken tribal dialects having neither a written nor a dominant form. At the time of written OE the dialects had changed from tribal to regional; they possessed both an oral and a writ­ten form and were no longer equal; in the domain of writing the West Saxon dialect prevailed over its neighbours. (Alongside OE dialects a foreign language, Latin, was widely used in writing.)

3. The Norman Conquest and its influence on the development of the English language.

The English language we now know would not have been the same if it was not for the events that happened in 1066. In 1066, the Duke of Normandy, William sailed across the British Channel. He challenged King Harold of England in the struggle for the English throne. After winning the battle of Hastings William was crowned king of England and the Norman Kingdom was established. Norman-French became the language of the English court. At the beginning French was spoken only by the Normans but soon through intermarriage, English men learnt French. Some 10,000 French words were taken into English language during the Middle English period and about 75% of them are still in use.

One of the most obvious changes that occurred after the Norman conquest was that of the language: the Anglo-Norman. When William the Conqueror was crowned as king of England, Anglo-Norman became the language of the court, the administration, and culture. English was demoted to more common and unprestigious usages. Anglo Norman was instated as the language of the ruling classes, and it would be so until about three centuries later. But not only the upper classes used French, merchants who travelled to and from the channel, and those who wanted to belong to these groups, or have a relationship with them, had to learn the language.

These events marked the beginning of Middle English, and had an incredible effect in the way English is spoken nowadays. Before the Norman conquest, Latin had been a minor influence on English, but at this stage, some 30000 words entered the English language, that is, about one third of the total vocabulary. But vocabulary was not the only thing that changed in the English language. While Old English had been an extremely inflected language, it now had lost most of its inflections.

The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal terms, such as indict, jury, and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic roots and words frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances. 

In vocabulary, about 10000 words entered the English language at this stage, and more than a third of today’s PdE (Present-day English) words are related to those Anglo-Norman ME (Middle English) words.

English pronunciation also changed. The fricative sounds [f], [s], [Ɵ] (as in thin), and [ʃ] (shin), French influence helped to distinguish their voiced counterparts [v], [z], [] (the), and [ƺ] (mirage), and also contributed the diphthong [oi] (boy).

Grammar was also influenced by this phenomenon especially in the word order. While Old English (and PdE in most of the occasions) had an Adj + N order, some expressions like secretary general, changed into the French word order, that is, N + Adj.

English has also added some words and idioms that are purely French, and that are used nowadays. 

Since French-speaking Normans took control over the church and the court of London. A largest number of words borrowed by the government, spiritual and ecclesiastical (religious) services. As example – state, royal (roial), exile (exil), rebel, noble, peer, prince, princess, justice, army (armee), navy (navie), enemy (enemi), battle, soldier, spy (verb), combat (verb) and more. French words also borrowed in English art, culture, and fashion as music, poet (poete), prose, romance, pen, paper, grammar, noun, gender, pain, blue, diamond, dance (verb), melody, image, beauty, remedy, poison, joy, poor, nice, etc. Many of the above words are different from modern French in use or pronunciation or spelling.

Thus, the linguistic situation in Britain after the Conquest was complex. French was the native language of a minority of a few thousand speakers, but a minority with influence out of all proportion to their numbers because they controlled the political, ecclesiastical, economic, and cultural life of the nation.

4. The effect of the Scandinavian Conquest.

Effect of the Scandinavian Invasions

Though the Scandinavian invasions of England are dated in the OE period, their effect on the language is particularly apparent in ME.

We may recall that since the 8th c. the British Isles were ravaged by sea rovers from Scandinavia, first by Danes, later — by Norwegians. By the end of the 9th c. the Danes had succeeded in obtaining a permanent footing in England; more than half of England was yielded to the invaders and recognised as Danish territory — “Danelaw”. While some of the Scandinavians came to England merely to plunder and return to their homeland, others made their permanent home in North East England,In the early years of the occupation the Danish settlements were little more than armed camps. But gradually the conditions stabilised and the Danes began to bring their families. The new settlers and the English intermarried and intermixed; they lived close together and did not differ either in social rank or in the level of culture and customs; they intermingled the more easily as there was no linguistic barrier between them. (OE and O Scand belonged to the Germanic group of languages and at that time were much closer than their descendants are today.) The colonisation and the intermixture of the newcomers with their former foes continued from the 9th c. on, during two hundred years, which witnessed diverse political events: the reconquest of Da­nelaw under Alfred’s successors, the renewal of Scandinavian onslaughts _in the late 10th c. under Sweyne, and the political annexation of Eng­land by Denmark under Canute (see §98).

In the areas of the heaviest settlement the Scandinavians outnumbered the Anglo-Saxon population, which is attested by geo­graphical names. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland, Cum­berland — up to 75 per cent of the place-names are Danish or Norwe­gian. Altogether more than 1,400 English villages and towns bear names of Scandinavian origin (with the element thorp meaning “village”, e.g. Woodthorp, Linthorp; toft ‘a piece of land’, e.g. Brimtoft, Lo­westoft and others). Probably, in many districts people became biling­ual, with either Old Norse or English prevailing.

Eventually the Scandinavians were absorbed into the local popu­lation both ethnically and linguistically. They merged with the society around them, but the impact on the linguistic situation and on the further development of the English language was quite profound.

The increased regional differences of English in the 11 th and 12th c. must partly be attributed to the Scandinavian influence. Due to the contacts and mixture with O Scand, the Northern dialects (to use OE terms, chiefly Northumbrian and East Mercian) had acquired lasting and sometimes indelible Scandinavian features. We find a large admix­ture of Scandinavian words in Early ME records coming from the North East whereas contemporary texts from other regions are practically devoid of Scandinavian borrowings.

In later ages the Scandinavian element passed into other regions. The incorporation of the Scandinavian element in the London dialect and Standard English was brought about by the changing linguistic situation in England: the mixture of the dialects and the growing lin­guistic unification.¹ Yet neither in theSouth nor in Standard English "did the Scandinavian element ever assume such proportions as in the North-Eastern ME dialects.

The long-term linguistic effect of the Viking settlements in England was threefold: over a thousand words eventually became part of Standard English; numerous places in the East and North-east of England have Danish names; and many English personal names are of Scandinavian origin. Scandinavian words that entered the English language included landing, score, beck, fellow, take, busting, and steersman.The vast majority of loan words did not appear in documents until the early 12th century; these included many modern words which used sk- sounds, such as skirt, sky, and skin; other words appearing in written sources at this time included again, awkward, birth, cake, dregs, fog, freckles, gasp, law, moss, neck, ransack, root, scowl, sister, seat, sly, smile, want, weak, and window from Old Norse meaning "wind-eye". Some of the words that came into use are among the most common in English, such as to go, to come, to sit, to listen, to eat, both, same, get, and give. The system of personal pronouns was affected, with they, them, and their replacing the earlier forms. Old Norse influenced the verb to be; the replacement of sindon by are is almost certainly Scandinavian in origin, as is the third-person-singular ending -s in the present tense of verbs. There are more than 1,500 Scandinavian place names in England, mainly in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire (within the former boundaries of the Danelaw): over 600 end in -by, the Scandinavian word for "village" or "town" — for example Grimsby, Naseby, and Whitby; many others end in -thorpe ("farm"), -thwaite ("clearing"), and -toft("homestead")^. The distribution of family names showing Scandinavian influence is still, as an analysis of names ending in -son reveals, concentrated in the north and east, corresponding to areas of former Viking settlement. Early medieval records indicate that over 60% of personal names in Yorkshire and North Lincolnshire showed Scandinavian influence.

Лексикологія:

1. Morphological structure of the English word.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the science of language. The term Lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexis meaning ‘word, phrase’ and logos which denotes ‘learning, a department of knowledge’. Thus, the literal meaning of the term L e x i с o l о g у is ‘the science of the word’.

A great many words can consist of smaller meaningful structural units which are called morphemes. From the semantic point of view all morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: root morphemes (roots) and affixation morphemes (affixes).

The root is lexical nucleus of a word. E.g. Theor-, in theory, theoretician, theoretical, etc.

The affixes fall into prefixes which precede the root (E.g unhappy, rewrite) and suffixes which follow the root (E.g. friendship, worker).

The part of a word which remains unchanged in all the forms of its paradigm is called a stem (E.g. girl-, in girls, girl’s, girls’.

Stems that coincide with roots are known as simple stems (E.g. boy’s, trees)

Stems that contain one or more affixes are derived stems (E.g. governments, misfires).

Binary stems comprising two simple or derived stems are called compound stems (E.g. ex-film-star, gentlemanly, school-boyish)

From the structural point of view morphemes fall into three types: free, bound and semi-bound morphemes.

A free morpheme can stand alone as a word (E.g. friendly, friendship)

Bound morphemes occur only as constituent parts of words (E.g. freedom, misprint, resist)

Semi-bound morphemes can function both as affixes and as free morphemes (i.e words) E.g. after, after-thought; half, half-baked; self, himself.

In Modern English one can often meet morphemes of Greek and Latin origin which have a definite lexical meaning though are not used as autonomous words, e.g. tele- ‘far’, -scope ‘seeing, -graph, - ‘writing’, etc. Such morhpemes are usually called combining forms or bound root morphemes.

Positional variants of a morpheme are known as allomorphs. Thus the prefix in (intransitive) can be represented by allomorph il (illegal), im (immortal), ir (irregular).

Several morphemes are polysemic, i.e. a certain form, being a component of words which belongs to the same part of speech, can express different meanings. E.g. baker – boiler, sculptor - reactor

Homonymic morphemes have the same form and different meaning, being components of words that belong to different parts of speech, e.g. quickly (adv) – lovely (a). One should distinguish between the homonymy of derivational affixes, on the one hand, and the homonymy of such affixes and inflections, on the other, e.g. worker (n.) – longer (comp. d. of a.)

English words fall into 4 main structural types:

1) simple words (root words) which have only a root morpheme in their structure, e.g. man, sky.

2) derived words (affixational derivatives) which consist of a root and one or more affixes, e.g. joyful, remake, undo, childhood.

3) compound words (compounds) in which two or more stems are combined into a lexical unit, e.g. classroom, whitewash, blacklist.

4) derivational compounds in which phrase components are joined together by means of compounding and affixation, e.g. long-legged, black-eyed, bald-headed, etc,

Morphological structure of words can be determined by the special synchronic method known as the analysis into immediate and ultimate constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, It means that the analysis proceds in stages, and at each stage the word or a part of it is segmented into two immediate constituents. Such successive segmentation results in ultimate constituents that defy any further division.

E.g. – denationalize

1) denationalize: de – nationalize

2) nationalize – national – ize

3) national – nation – al

Hence, the ultimate constituents of the word denationalize are: de – nation – al – ize.

2. Word formation in English.

Word-formation is the process of creating new words from the material available in the word-stock according to certain structural and semantic patterns specific for the given language.

1. The main types of word-formation process.

1) Derivation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root, e.g. misadvise, freedom

2) Compounding is the joining of two or more words into a single word. Compounds nay be written as: - one word: cornflakes, - a hyphenated word: long-haired, - two words: high school,

3) Various types of word-formation in Modern English possess different degrees of productivity. Some of them are highly-productive (affixation, conversion and similar phenomena (e.g. substantivation), compounding, shortening, forming phrasal verbs); other are semi-productive (back-formation, blending, reduplication, lexicalization of the plural of nouns, sound-imitation), and non-productive (sound interchange, change of stress).

2. Affixation.

Affixation is a word-formative process in which words are created by adding word-building affixes to stems. Affixation includes prefixation, i.e. forming new words with the help of prefixes, and suffixation, i.e. forming new words with the help of suffixes.

From the etymological point of view affixes are classified according to their origin into native (e.g. –er, -nese, -ing, un-, mis-, etc.) and borrowed (Romanic, e.g. –tion, -ment, -ance, re-, sub-, etc.; Greek, e.g. –ist, -ism, anti-, etc.)

Affixes can also be classified into productive (e.g. –er, -ness, -able, -y, -ize, un-, re-, die-, etc) and non-productive (-th, -hood, -en, -ous, etc.). Suffixes derive a certain part of speech, hence one should distinguish: noun-forming, adjective-forming, verb-forming and adverb-forming suffixes.

3. Conversion as a non-affixal type of word-formation. Types of transposition.

Conversion is a special type of affzless derivation where a newly-formed word acquires a paradigm and syntactic functions different from those of the original word.

Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs from the original one, but it can more or less be easily associated with it: nurse (n) – to nurse (v)

3.1 Denominal verbs. – verb that made from nouns: lip – to lip, land – to land

3.2 Deverbal nouns. – nouns that made from verbs: to go – go, to stick – stick, to help - help

3.3 Lexicalization of phrases. – is the process of adding set phrases to a language – that is, of adding items to a language’s lexicon.

3.4 Substantivation.

Substantivation is the process in which adjectives (or participles) acquire the paradigm and syntactic functions of nouns. One should distinguish two main types of substantivation: complete and partial.

Completely substantivized adjectives have the full paradigm of a noun, i.e. singulat and plural case forms. They may be associated with various deterniners (definite, indefinite and zero articles, demonstrative and possessive pronouns, etc), e.g.an officalm the official, officials, the officials, official’s, officials’, this official, our officials, etc. Complere substantivation is often regarded as a pattern of conversion (A-N), though it may be argued, since, as a rule, it is the result of ellipsis in an attributive phrase: a conservative politician – a conservative, a convertible car – a convertible.

In the case of partial substantivation adjectives do not acquire the full paradigm of a noun. They fall into several structural-semantic groups:

a) partially substantivized adjectives (PSA) or participles which are singular in form though plural in meaning. They are used with the definite article and denote a group or a class of people, e.g. the rich, the accused, the English, the blind, the living, etc.;

b) PSA used mostly in the plural and denoting a group or a class of people, e.g. reds, greens, blues.

c) PSA used mostly in the plural and denoting inanimate things, e.g. sweets, ancients.

d) PSA presenting properties as substantive abstract notion, e.g. the good, the evil, the beautiful.

e) PSA denoting languages, e.g. English, German, Ukrainian.

3.5 Adjectivization.

Premodification of nouns by nouns is highly frequent in Modern English. Noun-adjuncts should not be considered as adjectives produced by means of conversion. Nevertheless, some nouns may undergo the process of adjectivization and function as attributes with idiomatic meanings, e.g. coffee-table (n.) – coffee-table (adj.) – “Of a large size and richly illustrated.

Or in simple words Adjectivization is transition of the part of speech in the category of adjectives.

4. Composition (compounding).

4.1 Stem combinations.

Compounds are words produced by combining two or more stems which occur in the language as free forms. They may be classified proceeding from different criteria:

• According to the parts of speech to which they belong;

• According to the means of composition used to link their immediate constituents together;

• According to the structure of their immediate constituents;

• According to their semantic characteristics.

Most compounds in Modern English belong to nouns and adjectives. Compound verbs are less frequent; they are often made through conversion (N-V pattern). Compound adverbs, pronouns, conjuctions and prepositions are rather rare.

The classification of compounds according to the means of joining their immediate constituents together distinguishes between the following structural types:

1) juxtapositional (neutral) compounds whose immediate constituents are merely placed one after another: classroom, timetable, weekend, grey-green.

2) morphological compounds whose immediate constituents are joined together with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element, e.g. gasometer, handicraft, Anglo-Saxon, sportsman.

3) syntactic compounds (integrated phrases) which are the result of the process of semantic isolation and structural integration of free word-groups, e.g. blackboard (<black board), highway (<high way).

4.2 Stem repetitions.

Reduplication. In reduplication compounds are made by doubling a stem (often a pseudo-morpheme). Reduplicative compounds fall into three main subgroups:

1) Reduplicative compounds proper whose immediate constituents are identical in their form, e.g. murmur, bye-bye.

2) Ablaut (gradation) compounds whose immediate constituents have different root-vowels, e.g. ping-pong, chit-chat, etc,

3) Rhyme compounds whose immediate constituents are joined to rhyme, e.g. willy-nilly, helter-skelter.

5. Shortening.

There exist two main ways of shortening: contraction (clipping) and abbreviation (initial shortening).

5.1 Contraction

One should distinguish between four types of contraction:

1) Apocope (final clipping) – omission of the final part of the word, e.g. dog (<doctor)

2) Apheresis (initial clipping) – omission of the fore part of the word, e.g. phone (<telephone)

3) Syncope (medial clipping) – omission of the middle part of the word, e.g. maths (<mathematics), fancy (<fantasy)

4) Mixed clipping, where the fore and the final parts of the word are clipped, e.g. fridge (<refrigerator), Liz (<Elisabeth)

5.2 Abbreviation

Abbreviations (initial shortening) are words produced by shortening the immediate constituents of phrasal terms up to their initial letters. Abbreviations are subdivided into 5 groups:

1) Acronyms which are read in accordance with the rules of ortoepy as though they were ordinary words, e.g. UNO (<United Nations Organizations), NATO

2) Alphabetic abbreviation in which letters get their full alphabetic pronunciation and a full stress, e.g. USA, BBC (also used for famous persons’ names: G.B.S. <George Bernard Shaw)

3) Compound abbreviations in which the first immediate constituents is a letter (letters) and the second a complete word, e.g. A-bomb (<atomic bomb), V-day (<Victory day).

One or both immediate constituents of compound abbreviations may be clipped, e.g. hi-fi (<high fidelity).

4) Graphic abbreviations which are used in texts for economy of space. They are pronounced as the corresponding unabbreviated words, e.g. Mr. (<Mister)

5) Latin abbreviations which sometimes are not read as Latin words but as separate letters or are substituted by their English equivalents, e.g.: e.g. – for example, i.e – that is

6. Reversion (Back-formation)

Back-formation is the derivation of new words (mostly verbs) by means of subtracting a suffix or other element resembling it: butle < butler, greed<greedy, sculpt<sculptor

7. Blending

Blending is the formation of new lexical units by means of merging fragments of words into one new word, or combining the elements of one word with a notional word, e.g.: smog (smoke + fog), radiotrician (radio + electrician).

8. Minor type of word-formation.

1.Change of stress.

Several nouns and verbs of Romanic origin have a distinctive stress pattern. Such nouns, as a rule, are forestressed, and verbs have a stress on the second syllable, e.g. ‘accent(n) :: ac’cent(v), record(n) :: re’cord (v)

Also some pairs of adjectives and verbs, e.g.: ‘absent (a.) :: ab’sent

2. Sound interchange (gradation)

Words belonging to different parts of speech may be differentiated due to the sound interchange in the root, e.g. food (n) :: feed (v), gold (n) :: gild (v), strong (a) :: strength (n.)

3. Sound imitation (onomatopoeia)

Sound-imitative (onomatopoeic) words are made by imitating sounds produced by living beings and inanimate objects, e.g. babble, bang, buzz, crash, giggle.

4. Lexicalization of the plural of nouns.

There are cases when the grammatical form of the plural of nouns becomes isolated from the paradigm and acquires a new lexical meaning. This leads to the appearance of new lexical units, e.g. look “погляд” :: looks “зовнішність”.

3. Lexical meaning and semantic structure of the English word.

Semasiology is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of linguistic units, first of all, that of words and word equivalents.

There are 2 types of meaning: lexical and grammatical.

Lexical meaning is part of meaning that deals with the lexical meaning pf the word, deals with the linguistic aspect.

Grammatical meaning is the part of meaning that varies from one inflectional form to another (as from plays to played to playing)

The reference of a word is the relation between the linguistic expression and the entity in the real world to which it refers

sense is defined as its relations to other expressions in the language system.

content (the meaning rendering the emotion or the concept in the mind of the speaker which he intends to convey to his listener)

The interrelation between the structural pattern of the word and its lexical meaning is called motivation. There are three main types of motivation:

Phonetical motivation is observes in words whose sound-clusters imitate the sounds they signify, e.g. boom, murmur, whisper.

Morphological is apparent in derived words and nonidiomatic compounds due to their word-formation pattern, e.g. worker (work+er)=”one who works”

Semantic is the relationship between the direct and the transferred meaning of the word, e.g. a mother tongue, the mouth of a river

The mistaken motivation due to the fancied analogy of borrowings with well-known native words is calles falk (false) etymology. E.g. a crayfish has nothing in common with fish. (from O.F. crevisse (креветка).

One should distinguish three types of the lexical meaning of words:

1. Nominative meaning which is the direct meaning of the word, immediately reffering to objects in extralinguistic reality. The nominative meaning includes denotational and connotational components.

Denotation (conceptual) is the expression of the direct meaning proper of the word without any emotive evaluation or stylistic colouring, e.g. father, girl

Connotation (associative) is the supplementary expressive meaning presented either by emotive charge (e.g. sheepish, girlie, doggy) or by stylistic reference (girl – neutral, parent – book., dad – col., governor – slang

2. Syntactically conditioned meaning which manifests itself in different colligations. E.g. ask smth, ask smb about, ask for smb, ask smb to smth

3. Phraseologically bound meaning which is idiomatic and manifests itself only in ceratin phraseological units, e.g. tall story, buy smth for a song, catch a cold

There are three main semantic structures of words:

1) Momosemy is the existence within one word of only one meaning. (few in number): biochemistry, cybernetic, molecule, radar.

2) Polysemy is the existence within one word of several connected meanings. One of therm is the main (central) meaning, whereas the rest are associated (marginal) meanings.

3) Semantic diffusion is observed in words with a very wide conceptual volume. Such words denote, in fact, one concept, but can name an indefinitely large number of objects (referents).

Change of meaning

If the polysemantic structure of the word is subjected to a diachronic semantic analysis, it becomes clear that the word, as a rule, retains its original meaning, but at the same time acquires several new ones.

Hence one should distinguish the sollowing meanings compatising the set treated diachronically:

1) The direct meaning

a) the primary (etymological) meaning, e.g. wall (n.) < L. vollum – “rampart”, “fortification”

b) the derived meaning: wall – “upright structure, forming part of a room or building”.

2) The secondary meaning

a) the secondary denotative meaning: wall – “inside surface of cavity or vessel” e.g. walls p the heart, reactor wall

b) the figurative meaning, e.g. wall of partition (between [ersons), wall of fire

Semantic changes in denotation may lead to:

1) the extension (generalization) of meaning, e.g. barn n. OE bern – “place for storing barltey” ”a covered building for storing grain, hay’

2) the narrowing (specialization) of meaning, e.g. voyage n. OF “any trip or journey”  “a journey by sea or water”

Semantic changes in connotation may result in:

1) the pejorative development of meaning (degradation), e.g. knave OE cnafa “a boy”, “a male servant”  “a tricky rascal”, “a rogue”

2) the ameliorative development of meaning (elevation), e.g. fam OF fame – “common talk, rumour”  “reputation. esp for good”

Transference of names resulting from tropes

The word may be transferred from one referent onto another thus acquiring a new meaning. This type of transferring results from tropes: metaphor, simile, metonymy and some others.

Linguistic tropes – vocabulary units studied in lexicology; poetic tropes and stylistic devises – in stylistic.

1) Linguistic metaphor is associating two referents which resemble each other. Metaphors based on similarity of shape, function, position, color, temperature E.g. the teeth of a saw, the key to a test

Words denoting animals and their actions may be used metaphorically to denote human qualities: a fox (“a crafty person”, an ass “a stupid person”

Metaphoric epithets, denoting human qualities, are often applied to inanimate objects: cruel heat

Simile which is closely related to metaphor is a comparison of two referents: 1) stable idiomatic similes: merry as a criclet 2) comparative nominals. Collocations with comparative nominal, the latter functioning as comparative epithers, are easily trasformed into comparative constructions: the catlike creature  the creature is like a cat.

2) Linguistic metonymy is associating two referents which are in some way or other connected in reality. The simplest case of metonymy is synecdoche – the name of a part is applied to the whole, e.g. to earn one’s bread;

Other examples of metonymy include: the symbol for the thing signified, the instrument for the agent, the container for the thing contained, the material for the thing made, the name of a scientist, for physical units, inventions; the geographical name for the things produced there, the proper name for a common one.

In metonymic (transferred) epithets certain properties of the whole are ascribes to the part, e.g. clever fingers (the person is clever).

4. English phraseology, its classification.

Phraseological units are stable word-groups characterized by a complete or partially transferred meaning.

There exist several different classifications of phraseological units besed on different principles.

Thematic principle

The traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units is based on their original content and might be alluded to as "thematic" (although the term is not universally accepted). The approach is widely used in numerous English and American guides to idiom, phrase books, etc. On this principle, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin, ‘source’ referring to the particular sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural phenomena, etc. So, L. P. Smith gives in his classification groups of idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters and associated with the realia, phenomena and conditions of their occupations. In Smith’s classification we also find groups of idioms associated with domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture and cooking. There are also numerous idioms drawn from sports, arts, etc.

This principle of classification is sometimes called "etymological". The term does not seem appropriate since we usually mean something different when we speak of the etymology of a word or word-group: whether the word (or word-group) is native or borrowed, and, if the latter, what is the source of borrowing. It is true that Smith makes a special study of idioms borrowed from other languages, but that is only a relatively small part of his classification system. The general principle is not etymological.

Smith points out that word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Most of them have long since developed metaphorical meanings which have no longer any association with the sea or sailors. Here are some examples.

To be all at sea — to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (e. g. How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I'm afraid I'm all at sea in this problem). V. H. Collins remarks that the metaphor is that of a boat tossed about, out of control, with its occupants not knowing where they are.

To sink or swim — to fail or succeed (e. g. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort.)

In deep water — in trouble or danger.

To bow to the storm — to give in, to acknowledge one's defeat.

Half seas over (sl.) — drunk.

The thematic principle of classifying phraseological units has real merit but it does not take into consideration the linguistic characteristic features of the phraseological units.

Etymological principle

Classification of phraseological units on the base of their origin

The consideration of the origin of phraseological units contributes to a better understanding of phraseological meaning. According to their origin all phraseological units may be divided into two big groups: native and borrowed.

a) The main sources of native phraseological units are:

1) Terminological and professional lexics, e.g. physics: center of gravity (центр тяжести), specific weight (удельный вес); navigation: cut the painter (обрубить канат) — 'to become independent', lower one's colours (спустить свой флаг) — 'to yield, to give in'; military sphere: fall into line (стать в строй) — ‘conform with others’;

2) British literature, e.g. the green-eyed monster —‘jealousy’ (W.Shakespeare); like Hamlet without the prince —‘the most important person at event is absent’ (W.Shakespeare); fall on evil days —‘live in poverty after having enjoyed better times’ (J.Milton); a sight for sore eyes — ‘a person or thing that one is extremely pleased or relieved to see’ (J.Swift); how goes the enemy? (Ch. Dickens) —‘what is the time?’; never say die —‘do not give up hope in a difficult situation’ (Ch.Dickens);

3) British traditions and customs, e.g. baker’s dozen —‘a group of thirteen’. In the past British merchants of bread received from bakers thirteen loaves instead of twelve and the thirteenth loaf was merchants’ profit.

4) Superstitions and legends, e.g. a black sheep —‘a less successful or more immoral person in a family or a group’. People believed that a black sheep was marked by the devil; the halcyon days —‘a very happy or successful period in the past’. According to an ancient legend a halcyon (зимородок) hatches/grows its fledglings in a nest that sails in the sea and during this period (about two weeks) the sea is completely calm;

5) Historical facts and events, personalities, e.g. as well be hanged (or hung) for a sheep as a lamb —‘something that you say when you are going to be punished for something so you decide to do something worse because your punishment will not be any more severe’. According to an old law a person who stole a sheep was sentenced to death by hanging, so it was worth stealing something more because there was no worse punishment; to do a Thatcher —‘to stay in power as prime minister for three consecutive terms (from the former Conservative prime minister Margaret Thatcher)’;

6) Phenomena and facts of everyday life, e.g. carry coals to Newcastle —‘to take something to a place where there is plenty of it available’. Newcastle is a town in Northern England where a lot of coal was produced; to get out of wood —‘to be saved from danger or difficulty’.

b) The main sources of borrowed phraseological units are:

1) the Holy Script, e.g. the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing —‘communication in an organization is bad so that one part does not know what is happening in another part'; the kiss of Judas — 'any display of affection whose purpose is to conceal any act of treachery’ (Matthew XXVI: 49);

2) Ancient legends and myths belonging to different religious or cultural traditions, e.g. to cut the Gordian knot —‘to deal with a difficult problem in a strong, simple and effective way’ (from the legend saying that Gordius, king of Gordium, tied an intricate knot and prophesied that whoever untied it would become the ruler of Asia. It was cut through with a sword by Alexander the Great); a Procrustean bed —‘a harsh, inhumane system into which the individual is fitted by force, regardless of his own needs and wishes’ (from Greek Mythology, Procrustes — a robber who forced travelers to lie on a bed and made them fit by stretching their limbs or cutting off the appropriate length of leg);

3) Facts and events of the world history, e.g. to cross the Rubicon —‘to do something which will have very important results which cannot be changed after’. Julius Caesar started a war which resulted in victory for him by crossing the river Rubicon in Italy; to meet one's Waterloo —‘be faced with, esp. after previous success, a final defeat, a difficulty or obstacle one cannot overcome (from the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo 1815)’;

4) Variants of the English language, e.g. a heavy hitter —‘someone who is powerful and has achieved a lot’ (American); a hole card —‘a secret advantage that is ready to use when you need it’ (American); be home and hosed —‘to have completed something successfully’ (Australian);

5) Other languages (classical and modern), e.g. second to none —‘equal with any other and better than most’ (from Latin: nulli secundus); for smb’s fair eyes —‘because of personal sympathy, not be worth one’s deserts, services, for nothing’ (from French: pour les beaux yeux de qn.); the fair sex — ‘women’ (from French: le beau sex); let the cat out of the bag — ‘reveal a secret carelessly or by mistake’ (from German: die Katze aus dem Sack lassen); tilt at windmills —‘to waste time trying to deal with enemies or problems that do no exist’ (from Spanish: acometer molinos de viento); every dog is a lion at home — ‘to feel significant in the familiar surrounding’ (from Italian: ogni cane e leone a casa sua).

Functions principle:

1. Nominative phraseological units of various patterns which correlate with words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g. a dark horse, when pigs fly

2. Communicative phraseological units represented by proverbs and sayings, e.g. the pot cannot call the kettle black, no joy without alloy

3. Nominative-communicative phraseological units which include nominative verbal idioms that can be transformed into a sentence (communicative) structure when the verb is used un the Passive Voice, e.g. to put the cart before the horse – the cart was put before the horse.

4. Pragmatic phraseological units (interjectional idioms and response phrases, e.g. My aunt!, Bless your heart!

Structural principles:

1. Verbal, e.g. to ride the high horse, to lose one’s head, to drop a brick, to take the bull by the horns, to tale a fancy, etc.

2. Substantive, e.g. a grass window, a drop in the bucket

3. Adjectival, e.g. high and mighty, high and dry, fair and square.

4. Adverbial, e.g. from head to foot, by hook or by crook

5. Interjectional, e.g. good beavens!, sakes alive!, my eye!

Among adjectival, advervial and verbal phraseologiacal units one can easily discern stable idiomatic similes of two semantic types: figures of likeness and degree (e.g. as alike as peas in a pod) and figures of intensification (phraseological intensifiers, pseudo-similes), e.g. as (like) anything, as (like) hell

According to the classification based on the semantic principle English phraseological units fall into the following classes:

(Academician V.V. Vidogradov’s classification)

1. Fusions – completely non-motivated idiomatic word-groups, e.g. a white elephant (a present one can’t get rid of), once in a blue moon (“hardly ever”)

2. Half-fusions – stable word-groups in which the leading component literal, while the rest of the group is idiomatically fused, e.g. to talk through one’s hat (“to talk foolishly”)

3. Unities – metaphorically motivated idioms, e.g. a snake in the grass (“a hidden enemy”)

4. Half-unities – binary word-groups in which one of the components literal, while the other is phraseologically bound, e.g. small talk (“a polite talk about unimportant things”)

5. Phraseological collocations (standardized phrases) – word-groups with the components whose combinative power (valency) is strictly limited, e.g. make friends, to break silence.

6. Phraseological expressions – proverbs, sayings and aphoristic familiar quotations, e.g. Birds of a frather flocj together (=Рыбак рыбака видит из далека), Still water runs deep (=Тиха вода треблю рве).

USE OF IDIOMS:

Stylistics features:

1. Colloquialisms : e.g. hang in, big wheel, make waves, can of worms

2. Slang: e.g. cancer stick, hit the sack, dish the dirt, feel no pain, in the soup

3. Literary expressions: e.g. come to pass, be it that, in the wake of, give the lie to, of note, cross swords.

RHETORIC FEATURES:

1. Phonetic manipulation:

(1) Alliteration: e.g. chop and change, might and main, rough and ready, part and parcel, toss and turn, bag and baggage, sum and substance, neither fish, flesh, nor fowl.

(2) Rhyme: e.g. kith and kin, toil and moil, by hook and by crook, fair and square, “A little pot is soon hot.” “A friend in need is a friend indeed.” “There’s many a slip between the cup and the lip.”

2. Lexical manipulation:

(1) Reiteration (duplication of synonyms): e.g. scream and shout, cut and carve, pick and choose, hustle and bustle, rough and tough, odds and ends, bits and pieces, push and shove, ways and means, by leaps and bounds.

(2) Repetition: e.g. by and by, out and out, such and such, neck and neck, lots and lots, day by day, all in all, face to face, word for word, year in year out.

(3) Juxtaposition (of antonyms): e.g. here and there, up and down, rain or shine, weal and woe, first and last, high and low, back and forth, sooner or later, play fast and loose, move heaven and earth.

3. Figures of speech:

(1) Simile: e.g. as mute as a fish, as dead as a doornail, as graceful as a swan, like a rat in a hole, eat like a horse, sleep like a log, spend money like water, “Time flies like an arrow.”

(2) Metaphor: e.g. black sheep, a dark horse, grey mare, snake in the grass, new broom, flat tire, the salt of the earth, bed of dust, crocodile tears, a wet blanket, black bottle, sit on the fence, fall from grace.

(3) Metonymy: e.g. in the cradle, live by one’s pen, from cradle to grave, make up a purse.

(4) Synecdoche: e.g. earn one’s bread, fall into good hands, two heads are better than one.

(5) Personification: e.g. Failure is the mother of success. Actions speak louder than words. The pot calls the cattle black. Fire and water are good servants, but bad masters.

(6) Euphemism: e.g. the call of nature, sleep around, powder one’s nose, kick the bucket, give leg-bail, big deal, perfumed talk.

Semantic relations in phraseology

Many phraseological units are polysemantic. Their polysemantic structure develops mostly due to further metaphoric transference of their meaning.

(1) synonyms: to skate on ice – to platy with fire;

(2) antonyms: (a) differ in one component – up to date VS out of date; to do one’s best VS to do one’s worst; (b) differ in sets of components – to talk nineteen to the dozen VS to keep mum; (c) differ in meaning - by all means – (a) “of course; certainly (granting a permission)”: “May I make a suggestion?” “By all means.”; (b) “by any means or by any manner of means (following a negative) in any way; at all”: “I'm not poor by any means.”

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1. General notes on style and stylistics

Stylistics is a branch of linguistics, which has to do with expressing possibilities of language, it’s vocabulary, the structure and the sound arrangement of the sentence of the pattern.

The object of Stylistics is language, because Stylistics is a brunch of linguistics.

Stylistics is a brunch of linguistics, the subject of which is the study of language styles, their aims, structure, characteristic features, the effect they produce and the study of language means, that is the study of expressive means and stylistic devices.

Style is the system of interrelated language means which serve the definite aim in communication. The types of texts that are distinguished by their pragmatic aspect of communication are called functional styles of language. Functional styles appear mainly at the literary standard of a language. The literary standard of language is not homogeneous, it has fallen into several subsystems, each of which has acquired it’s own peculiarities, which are typical of the given functional style. Functional styles are differentiated according to the function of communication. There are exist many classification of functional styles because of different view points of the scientists. For example I.V. Arnold speaks about: scientific style, newspaper style, style of official documents, style of poetry, oratorical style, colloquial style.

The expressive means of language are those: phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, which exist in language as a system for the purpose of logical or emotional intensification of an utterance. The most powerful are phonetic expressive means, which melody stress, whispering, a sing song manner are much more effective than any other means in intensifying an utterance emotionally or logically.

Stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and semantic property of a language unit promoted to a generalized status and becoming a generative model.

The problem of literary norm. Norm should be regarded as the invariant of the phonemic, morphological, lexical and syntactical patterns, circulating in language in action at a given period of time. One of the most characteristic properties of the norm is it’s flexibility. The norn of the language is not rigid. The problem of variants of norm of the literary norm has received wide-spread attention among linguists.

2.The problem of functional style of the English language.

The style is a system of interrelated lang means which serves a definite aim in communication. The types of texts that ate distinguished by their pragmatic aspect of comm. are called func.style. of lang.

FS appear mainly at the literary standard of a lang. The literary standard of EL is not homogeneous, it has fallen into several subsystems, each of which has a quite its own peculiarities, which are typical of the given funct style.

FS are differentiated according to the function of communication. These are exist many classifications of F styles because of diff view points of the scientists.

• I.V.Arnold speaks about: scientific style, newspaper s, style of official doc, s of poetry, oratorical s, colloquial s.

• Kuznec and Screbnev distinguished: literary or bookish s (they speak here about publicist s), scientific(technolog), the style of official doc. They disting free (colloq) style: literary-colloq style, familiar-colloquial style.

• A.N.Marakovskiy singles out 5 st: official-business st, scientific-prof st, publicistic st, literary-colloq st, familiar-colloq st.

• I.R.Galperin distinguishes:

a) bell-letter st, and substyles such as: substyle of poetry, emotive prose, and sub of drama;

b) public-c style: oratory and speeches, essays substyle, sub of article, newsp, magazines; subs of radio and TV commentary.

c) newsp-r style: brief news items, advertisement and announcement, sub of headlines, sub of the editorial.

d) scient-prose st: sub of exact sciences, humanitarian sciences, popular science prose.

e) style of official doc-s: subst of diplomatic doc, of business letters, of military doc, of legal doc.

3.Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary.

The word-stock of any language may be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected any yet independent. The word-stock of any language may be divided into 3 main layers (strata):

1. the literary language (stratum);

2. the neutral layer;

3. the colloquial layer.

Literary and colloquial layers have subgroups. Each subgroup has a property it shares with all subgroups within a layer. This common property, which unites the different groups within a layer is called aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is it’s bookish character, which makes the layer more stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer is it’s lively spoken character, which makes it unstable and fleeting. The aspect of neutral layer is it’s universal character. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity, This makes the layer the most stable of all.

This classification, given by I.R. Galperin reflects to a great extent the mobility of the lexical system, so characteristic of the English language at it’s present stage of it’s development.

In general, the vocabulary has been divided into standard and non-standard and between them - neutral.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:

• common literary

• terms and learned words

• poetic words

• archaic words

• barbarisms and foreign words

• literary coinages and nonce-words.

The colloquial vocabulary includes the following groups:

• common colloquial words

• slang

• jargonisms

• professionalisms

• dialectal words

• vulgar words

• colloquial coinages

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term Standard English vocabulary.

4.Semasiological expressive means of the English language (figures of quality).

Semasiology deals not with every kind of linguistic meaning only. Its subject isn’t a basic meaning of a ling unit as such, but its additional meaning which appears in 2 cases:

1. In case of unusual denotative reference of ws, word-com, utter-ces, texts

2. In case of unusual distribution of the meaning expressed by this units.

Sem ex means- are figures of substitution that is different means of secondary nomination.

Figures of substitutions can be divided into figures of

1. quantity: hyperbola, litote, maosis

2. quality: metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism, metaphor, antonyms, personification, allegory, epithet, irony.

• Metaphor- is a relation between the dictionary and contextual meaning based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of 2 corresponding concepts. (a ray of hope, floods of tears, a shadow of smile. M. can be genuine, trite, dead.

• Metonymy- is based on a diff type oа relation between the dictionary and contextual meaning, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meaning represent. ( the word crown may stand for ‘king or queen’, cup or glass for ‘the drink it contain’, grave for ‘death’)

• Irony- is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the 2 meanings stand in opposition to each other. (“ It must be delightful to find oneself in the foreign country without a penny in the pocket”)

• Epithet- is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attribute word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features.(wild wind, loud ocean, heartburning smile). E. can be associated, compound, fixed, language, phrase, reversed, simple, speech, string of, transferred, unassociated.

• Periphrasis- is a device which denotes the use of longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. (the fair sex ‘woman’, my better half ‘wife’, the cap and gown ‘student body’)

• Euphemism- is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. ( the word ‘to die’ has bred the following euphemisms: to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart)

• Personification- a trope or figure of speech (generally considered a type of metaphor) in which an inanimate object or abstraction is given human qualities or abilities. (Fear knocked on the door. Faith answered. There was no one there. – Proverb)

• Allegory- is akin to metaphor, but it differs from the latter by having a definite symbolic meaning. (the names of pilgrims are “Christian” and “Hopeful”).

• Synecdoche - a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole (for example, ABCs for alphabet) or the whole for a part ("England won the World Cup in 1966"). Synecdoche is often treated as a type of metonymy.

• Antonym - a word that means the opposite of another word; sharp contrast: ``empty'' is an antonym of ``full''

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