English Phonetics

1. Ph. as a branch of Linguistics

Phonetics –

• the branch of linguistics that studies word components of the phonetic system of the language.

• Concerned with human noises by which the thought is actualized or given audible shape + nature of these noises, their combinations, and their functions in relation to meaning.

• Most fundamental, basic linguistic brunch

Phonetic system, it’s components:

• segmental phonemes

• word stress

• syllabic structure

• intonation

Phonetics itself is divided into two major components: segmental phonetics, which is concerned with individual sounds that are singled out in a speech sequence but recognizable by its characteristic features without taking into account such features as tone, voice, rhythm etc. (i.e. “segments” of speech; [d][L][t][q] – if a sound isn’t identified it means that it was mispronounced and the characteristic features were not there) and suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is the larger units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts.

In accordance with their linguistic function the organs ofspeech may be

grouped as follows:

The respiratory or power mechanism furnishes the flow ofair which is the first requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is formed by the lungs, the wind-pipe and the bronchi. The air-stream expelled from the lungs provides the most usual source of energy which is regulated by the power mechanism. Regulating the force ofthe air-wave the lungs produce variations in the intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamic stress, both typical of English, are directly related to the behaviour ofthe muscles which activate this mechanism.

From the lungs through the wind-pipe the air-stream passes to the upper

stages ofthe vocal tract. First ofall it passes to the larynx containing the vocal cords. The opening between the vocal cords is known as the glottis. The function ofthe vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator set in motion by the air-stream sent by the lungs. The most important speech function ofthe vocal cords is their role in the production ofvoice. The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate when subjected to the pressure of air passing from the lungs. The vibration is caused by compressed air forcing an opening ofthe glottis and the following reduced air-pressure permitting the vocal cords to come together.

The height ofthe speaking voice depends on the frequency ofthe vibrations.

The more frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is. The typical speaking voice ofa woman is higher than that ofa man because the vocal cords ofa woman vibrate more frequently. We are able to vary the rate of the vibration thus producing modifications of the pitch component of intonation. More than that. We are able to modify the size ofthe puffof air which escapes at each vibration ofthe vocal cords, i. e. we can alter the amplitude of the vibration which causes changes of the loudness of the sound heard by the listener.

From the larynx the air-stream passes to supraglottal cavities, i. e. to the

pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavities. The shapes of these cavities modify the note produced in the larynx thus giving rise to particular speech sounds.

There are three branches of phonetics each corresponding to a different stage in the communication process described above. Each ofthese branches uses a special set ofmethods.

The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in

motion, the movements ofthe speech organs and the coordination ofthese movements in the production ofsingle sounds and trains ofsounds is called articulatory phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the way speech sounds are produced by the organs of speech, in other words the mechanisms ofspeech production.

Acoustic phonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the

speaker's mouth and the listener's ear, in other words, the sound wave. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds and uses special technologies to measure speech signals.

The branch of phonetics investigating the perception process is known as auditory phonetics. Its interests lie more in the sensation ofhearing which is brain activity, than in the physiological working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear and the brain. The means by which we discriminate sounds - quality, sensation of pitch, loudness, length, are relevant here. branch of phonetics is of special interest to anyone who teaches or studies pronunciation.

Theoretical Phonetics has the following branches:

​ articulatory

​ acoustic

​ auditory

​ functional /phonological

Each branch of Theoretical Phonetics investigates the appropriate aspect of speech sounds.

Articulatory Phonetics investigates the functioning of one’s speech apparatus and mechanism. It is based on profound knowledge of physiology and the structure of one’s speech apparatus. While investigating the articulatory aspect of speech sounds both subjective and objective methods are employed: the method of direct observation (concerning the lips & the tongue movements) – subjective method and X-ray photography and X-ray cinematography (objective methods).

Acoustic Phonetics studies the acoustic properties of sounds (quantity, timber/voice quality, intensity, the pitch of the voice and temporal factor) in terms of the frequency of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in relation to time. The analysis begins with a microphone, which converts the air movement into corresponding electrical activity. While investigating the acoustic aspect of speech sounds special laboratory equipment is employed: spectrograph, intonograph, sound analyzing & sound synthesizing machines.

Auditory Phonetics is aimed at investigating the hearing process which is the brain activity. Auditory Phonetics and Acoustic Phonetics are very closely connected.

Functional Phonetics presupposes investigating the discriminatory (distinctive) function of speech sounds. While investigating the functional aspect of speech sounds some methods are employed(the method of distinctive oppositions, the distributional method).

Phonetics studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units, phonology investigates sounds as units, which serve communicative purposes. Phonetics and phonology are closely connected. The unit of phonetics is a speech sound, the unit of phonology is a phoneme.

Both Phonetics and Phonology study speech sounds but Phonetics studies them as articulatory and acoustic units whereas Phonology investigates them as functional distinctive units which perform a discriminatory and a social function. The discriminatory function consists in distinguishing one sequence of sounds (words, sentences, texts) from another with a different meaning (e.g. back – bag: due to the force of articulation we can differentiate between the meaning = fortis /k/ and lenis /g/).

A social function of speech sounds manifest itself in their role in forming syllables, words, word combinations and sentences. A social function of speech sounds is determined by social and territorial stratification of the language. One’s pronunciation may change in accordance with a social situation and the contents of information.

Phonetics – universal, concrete, truly material.

Phonology – specific, abstract, mental.