Operating within Constraints: Solutions to the Problems Posed by Some Russian Constructions

This section looks at some of the restrictions which English syntax places on us as translators. What is perfectly possible - indeed, may be excellent style - in Russian may be impossible in English. By that I mean that a native English speaker would not write it, and perhaps will not understand it. So my insistence on these grammatical oddities is not mere pedantry, but an attempt to help you achieve your aim - to convey the meaning of the original.

1. NOUNS

"Explanatory" Nouns

Often we see what I can only describe as an "explanatory" noun before a proper name in Russian. We very rarely do this in English:

• город (г.) Алматы: Almaty

• фирма "Бейкер и Макензи": Baker & McKenzie

• программа MS Excel: MS Excel

The reader should know, or would guess from the context, that these are a city, a firm and a computer program respectively.

If it were genuinely possible that your readers might not know what, say, MS Excel is, you would write:

♦ MS Excel, a computer program, ... (or: the computer program MS Excel). Never put the proper name in inverted commas in English.

Also, it would be necessary to translate город if it was being contrasted with the область:

♦ город Алматы и Алматинская область: the city of Almaty and Almaty oblast; or (more American) Almaty city and Almaty oblast

Sometimes the explanation is actually a translation, in which case we don't need to repeat it:

♦ Ирландский танцевальный коллектив «Irish dance company»: the Irish Dance Company (capital letters, no inverted commas)

For names of languages, in Russian we must use the word язык (русский язык), but in English it is far more common to say simply Russian than "the Russian language". The latter version (note the definite article) would be used for clarity, where there might be some doubt, or in legal documents or other formal writing. Where the meaning is obvious, as in на английском языке or они изучают английский язык, English is preferable to "the English language".

"Quasi-Pronoun" Nouns

It is common in Russian-language journalism to use nouns like общество and глава государства as quasi-pronouns. To the Russian reader it's obvious what they refer to, but it may not be to your English reader, particularly if they occur several paragraphs later than the original reference. To ensure clarity in English, it's better to repeat the name:

• Государственный концерн «Азербайджан Хава Йоллары» является государственным органом гражданской авиации... [much later in the text] Концерн заключил договор...: The state concern Azerbaijan Hava Yollary is the state civil aviation body... Azerbaijan Hava Yollary concluded a contract...

• Президент PK H.A. Назарбаев... [later] Глава государства указал... Nursultan Nazarbayev, President of Kazakhstan,... Nazarbayev (or The President) indicated...

Singular or Plural?

Here are some nouns which may be plural in Russian but are nearly always singular (collective) in English:

воды water (exception: international waters)

доходы income (revenues, however, may be plural) земли land

отводы waste

плоды, fruit

фрукты

проценты interest

работы work (exception: public works); research

самолеты aircraft (never "aircrafts")

тренинги training courses (not "trainings")

The plural of person is nearly always people. "Persons" is very formal.

♦ инвалиды: disabled people

This way of describing certain groups (adjective + people) is also much more human-sounding than adjectival nouns ("the disabled", "the unemployed", etc.), which are less and less heard nowadays.

Талибы are always the Taliban in English, not "Talibs".

Повреждения or убытки, although plural in Russian, should be translated damage - never "damages". This is a serious mistake, since damages means компенсация за ущерб или убытков.

The wonderful word media (СМИ: we usually say "media" rather than "mass media", which sounds a bit academic) can be singular or plural, depending on the sense:

• The media has been hounding Kazhegeldin/Prince Charles [singular, with definite article = the media in general; every single newspaper and radio station).

• Small media find it difficult to survive in Tajikistan (plural, no article = individual newspapers).

Data can also be singular or plural, depending on the writer's preference, while news and police are always singular.

Collective nouns may be followed by singular or plural verbs. These include family, team, jury and government. The plural verb is used when the English speaker is thinking of all the individual members of the organization, and is more common in British than American English. British people go so far as to say "Manchester United are…", but Americans do not.

English grammar is rather lax in this regard. In this typical example, the plural verb has been influenced by the plural noun right next to it, rather than the subject of the sentence:

♦ Подавляющее большинство малокомплектных школ находится в сельской местности.: The overwhelming majority of understaffed schools are situated in rural areas.

Remember, abbreviated terms also need the -s ending when in the plural: (фокус-групповые дискуссии (ФГД): focus group discussions (FGDs) (pronounced "ef-gee-deez") Some native speakers would insert an apostrophe here, but this is incorrect.

The word type is followed by of + (no article) singular.

♦ тип депозитов: type of deposit

When translating часть followed by a plural noun, you cannot say "part", only some.

♦ часть больных: some of the patients

♦ основная часть мероприятий: most of the measures/actions

Miscellaneous Points

Проект протокола should be translated draft protocol, not "draft of protocol". Likewise, заместители председателя are deputy chairmen, not "deputies of the chairman".

Negative nouns like неиспользование are often better rendered failure to use rather than "non-use":

♦ [Russian??]: The court's failure to apply the refinancing rate is illegal.

♦ неисполнение обязательства по договору: default on a contract; failure to perform a contractual (or treaty) obligation

English rarely joins two related nouns together with a hyphen or dash, as Russian often does. There are various ways round this:

• европейцы-колонизаторы и арабы-мусульмане: European colonizers and Arab Muslims

• банк-кредитор: lending bank

• физические лица - нерезиденты: non-resident individuals

• субъекты - естественные монополисты: entities which are natural monopolists

When translating the instrumental case: Use with for a thing being used

Use by for a person doing the action

[Examples??]

Possessive with of or 's? This is a question of style and usage. [Need more examples!!]

• Вооруженные Силы Республики Казахстан: the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan (official name), cf. вооруженные силы Республики Казахстан: Kazakhstan's armed forces (description used in journalism)

• ведущие певцы и музыканты Казахстана: Kazakhstan's top singers and musicians

• крупнейшее наше месторождение: Kazakhstan's largest deposit, or the largest deposit in Kazakhstan

• многие месторождения Казахстана: many of Kazakhstan's deposits, or many deposits in Kazakhstan

• казахстанская золотодобыча: gold production in Kazakhstan ("Kazakhstan's gold production" is not possible)

Translating Nouns as Verbs

Nouns are more frequently used in Russian than in English, which prefers verbs. A construction which piles noun upon noun can be perfectly clear in Russian because the endings show how the nouns relate to one another, but in English it is likely to be at best clumsy and unnatural, at worst incomprehensible.

Here are some of the practical implications this has for the translator...

(1) Nouns followed by other nouns in Russian:

such as необходимость + noun: the need to + verb

• необходимость реформирования советской экономической системы: the need to reform the Soviet economic system ("the need for reform of..." would not be wrong, but it is clumsier; "need of is definitely wrong!)

• право получения лицензии: the right to obtain a licence (not right of obtaining)

• отказ в регистрации товарных знаков: refusal to register the trademarks

возможность + noun: the possibility of + gerund, or opportunity to + verb

♦ возможность регистрации устава: the possibility of registering the charter

(2) Certain conjunctions:

For с целью/для + noun, the best translation is nearly always (in order) to + verb. Other possibilities are for the purpose of and with a view to (both followed by a gerund), but these phrases sound somewhat weaker.

• С целью создания современной армии...: In order to establish a modern army...

• При перемене Товариществом места нахождения оно обязано известить об этом орган, осуществивший его государственную регистрацию для внесения необходимых изменений в государственный регистр юридических лиц.: Should the Partnership change its location, it shall notify the body which effected its state registration in order that the necessary amendments can be made in the state register of legal entities.

♦ Вы можете также подключиться к участию в течение конкурса. Для этого вам необходимо...: You can also join in during the competition. To do so, you will need to...

по мере + noun: as + verb

♦ Эти проблемы постепенно решаются по мере улучшения экономической ситуации: These problems are gradually being solved as the economic situation improves.

в случае + noun: if + verb (see the note on в случае in the Conjunctions chapter)

при + noun: often if/when + verb (but not always; also see the examples in the Prepositions chapter)

• при особой сложности дела: if the case is particularly complex

• при полном удовлетворении всех требований кредиторов: provided that all creditors' claims have been satisfied in full

• при числе учредителей более одного: if/where there is more than one founder

• при заключении договора: when concluding a contract; when the contract was concluded; upon conclusion of a contract

• при решении данного вопроса: in seeking to resolve such matter

• при создании AO: when the JSC was founded

(3) The purpose/goal/objective/aim is... In Russian this is often followed by a noun; in English we use a verb in the infinitive:

♦ Одной из целей настоящего исследования является выяснение...: One of the aims of this survey is to find out...

This is the case even if these objectives or obligations are in a list (as is very common in company documents like charters):

♦ разработка и реализация программ: to develop and implement programmes (not "the elaboration and implementation of programmes")

(4) Производиться or осуществиться + noun are generally best translated by a single verb:

♦ Строительство железной дороги осуществляется на месторождении [??]: А railway is being constructed at the deposit (not "The construction of a railway is being carried out").

• Выплата дивидендов производится деньгами.: Dividends shall be paid in cash. More examples:

• номер и дата открытия счёта: number of account and date opened

• в независимости от прибыльности общества: however much profit the company makes; whether or not the company makes a profit

• Лучшим решением данной проблемы явилось бы уменьшение денежных потоков.: The best way to solve this problem would be to decrease cash flows.

• Ввод в действие этого объекта намечен на август 2004 года.: The facility is scheduled to start operating in August 2004.

Вся уникальность - в том, что...: What makes it unique is that...

2. VERBS

Modal Verbs

(1) Obligation

For должно, must is generally the clearest, most neutral translation. In my experience many Russian translators are very fond of should, but this word is not as strong as должно. Although "should/ought to" can express obligation, it is more likely to mean merely that something is advisable or desirable (closer to следует), and can also imply that the obligation is unlikely to be fulfilled.

Have to is fine when translating journalism, but it is too colloquial for most written texts, so use it with caution. (Had to is, of course, the past tense of must, although for legal documents I would prefer was obliged to.)

In legal documents должно and обязуется can be translated shall, but not in other kinds of writing, where "shall" simply indicates the future tense. (For обязуется, I also like undertakes (to), and for обязан, is obliged (to).)

"Is (are) to" does not necessarily imply obligation; it can simply mean that something is planned - предполагается, планируется. (The Queen is to open the centre next week.) This construction is frequently used in journalism.

The impersonal constructions необходимо, нужно, надо: We need to/must..^ There is a need to... (slightly stronger: It is essential to.._.) These all sound more natural than "It is necessary to..."

♦ Сначала надо определить...: First we need to/must decide/determine...

Or, if the sentence has an object, the verbs can be made passive:

• Дикого беркута необходимо приручить и подготовить его к охоте.: The wild golden eagle must be tamed and trained to hunt.

• Сведения о товарах, указанных в пп. 3.2-3.12, при их наличии необходимо указать на обратной стороне декларации.: Details of the items/goods specified in points 3.2-3.12, if any, must be given on the reverse side of the declaration.

(2) Permission/ability

Можно, может: can (is able to); may (is allowed to); could; might (if it is not very likely); be capable of doing sth. (not "capable to").

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Increase and decrease can act as both transitive and intransitive verbs, but synonyms of these verbs are not so flexible:

Good neutral translation for journalism only!

увеличить to increase, raise boost

увеличиться: to increase, rise, grow soar, rocket, escalate

снизить: to decrease, reduce, cut, lower slash

снизиться: to decrease, fall, drop, decline plummet, plunge, sink

Please note the difference between rise and raise; I have seen even very experienced translators get this wrong, and the result can be very difficult for the English reader to understand.