Global emission of chemical elements (thous.T/year) (according to V.V. Yermakov, 2003)

Element	Natural emission		Technogenic emission
	Pacyna (1992)	Mukherjee (2001)	Pacyna (1992)	Mukherjee (2001)
Cd Co Cr Cu Hg Mn Ni Pb Zn V As	0,96 5,4 53,9 18,9 0,16 516 26 18,6 45,5 66,1 7,8	0,1-3,9 0,6-11,4 4,5-83 2,2-53,8 0-4,9 51,5-582 2,9-56,8 0,9-23,5 4-86 (70)* 1,1-23,5	7,6 - 30,5 35,4 3,6 38,3 55,7 332 132 86 (90)* 18,8	5,6–37,7 – 585–1310 542–1403 1,6–15 706–2633 93,3–494 479–1039 689–1954 21,4–138 52,4–111,6

Note: ()*- the data from Nore (1994)

To the global technogenic transformations of environmental-geochemical biosphere shell the author attributes the so-called lead pollution in particular. A vivid example is the fact of lead accumulation in Greenland glacier (Fig.2.1). Though the element content is various, its clear correlation with the amount emitted into the atmosphere by enterprises and vehicles is obvious (Nebel, 1993, with reference to Murozumi, 1969). According to Bunce (1994) production and consumption of this element is closely related to the human activity (Fig.2.2). It should be noted that living organisms strongly react to the changes of this element in the environment both upwards and downwards. In case with lead, the number of automobiles directly influences the increase of concentration in plants (Fig.2.3), the measures taken to decrease in its content in the environment, was accompanied by decrease in its content in blood of people (Fig.2.4).

Fig. 2.1. Lead content in Greenland glaciers. The age of ice samples corresponds to their depth (from B. Nebel, 1993)

Fig.2.2. Lead production and consumption in the human history (Bunce, 1994)

Fig.2.3. Changes in lead concentrations in the bush leaves from the beginning of August till October at the traffic density per day: 1 – 28 thous.; 2 – 12 thous. (Batoyan, 1990)

Fig. 2.4. Decrese in lead level in blood of the US population at stopping production of ethylene gasoline (Silbergeld, 1995)

These graphs demonstrate convincingly the performance of one of B. Kommoner’s laws «Everything interconnected».

The global changes in biosphere as a result of technogenesis, definition of which was suggested by А.Ye. Fersman in 1937 (Fersman, 1937) can be judged by the changes in accumulation level of absolutely alien element to biosphere – plutonium. Thus, before 1945 this element did not exist at all. In 1953 he was detected in the amount 0,0007 Bq/g, in 1954 the amount raised to 0,013 Bq/g, by 1958 the activity of the element in human pulmonary tissue reached 0,25 Bq/g («Plutonium…», 1994).

In the 50 – 70’s of the last century by the example of this element the other authors showed that changes in concentration of this element as a result of intensive anthropogenic impact could range widely in living organisms (Schepers, 1955; Warren, Delavault, 1960; Cannon, Bowlse 1962, Leigverf, Spegt, 1970, Paige, 1971, Brucks, 1982). Thus, Kopito with co-workers (1967) showed that lead content in hair in case of lead poisoning reached 0,1% at standard concentration – 2,4 × 10^-3%. D. Brise – Smith (1971) stated that for males living in cities of Philadelphia the lead level was significantly higher than the standard and amounted sometimes more than 0,5 × 10^-4%. The blood standards for the US and England as well as New Guinea were adopted the content 0,2× 10^-4% (Bockris, 1977; Brucks, 1982).

One could assume the presence of similar reaction of living matter to changes in concentration of any other substance. For instance, development of nuclear technogenesis has resulted in abnormally high concentrations of a number of specific elements (such as plutonium, uranium, cesium and others) in the objects of living and non-living nature. The results of L.P. Rikhvanov’s et al (2002) research testify that the level of fission element accumulation (U²³⁵, Pu, Am and other transuranium elements) in the environment has increased at global scale 2 – 3 times (Fig.2.5). But in definite local sites, the places of nuclear-fuel cycle plants, nuclear test sites (NTS) this level changed even more (Arkhangelskaya, 2004; Zamyatina, 2008, Bolsunovsky e.a., 2004).

Global changes are well demonstrated by L.P. Rikhvanov’s et al. (2007) data on uranium content in ice water (Fig.2.6), cesium according to А.М. Mezhibor’s data (2009) in peats (Fig.2.7).

Everywhere there are changes of element soil composition conditioned by both local transformations and global fallouts of technogenic components (А.I. Perelman (1955, 1989), V.А. Kovda et al (1980); М.А. Glazovskiy (1988; 1994), B.B. Polynov (1956), В.А. Alexeenko (2001); G.V. Motuzova (2000, 2001), V.B. Il’in (1985, 1991); V.V. Dobrovolskiy, (1983, 2008); N.L. Baydina, 2004; L.P. Rikhvanov et al. (1993); Ye.G. Yazikov et al. (2010) and many others).

Fig. 2.5. Changes in global background of fissionable radionucleus (U-235, Pu, Am и др.) within the last 150 years (in terms of f – radiography of tree rings). Conditional signs: 1 – the curve of observing stations; 2 – the smoothed curve; 3 – the regional level. (from Rikhvanov et al, 2002).

Fig.2.6. Uranium content in snow melting water of Aktru glacier, Gorniy Altay, 2005 (from Rikhvanov, et al)

А B

Fig.2.7. Cesium content in peats in the zone of SCC effect (А) and reference region (B) (according to Mezhibor’s data, 2008).

Changes in the global geochemical background are typical for water medium as well. For example, oil pollution as a result of hydrocarbon production and transportation results in irremediable damage. From the moment of starting oil sea shipping in tankers about 5 mln tons of oil have spilled into the sea annually (Zo Bell, 1964; et al). The process of emergency oil release as it happened in Gulf of Mexico in 2010 led to irreversible consequences that are difficult to estimate at the moment. High water pollution level with oil and petrochemicals is observed in extensive sea basins of Mexico and Arabian Gulfs, the north coast of Alaska and Canada, in Caribbean and Arabian seas and other zones of the World Ocean where natural oil seepages are located on the coast and continental shelf (Sadovnikova et al, 2006). In addition, burial of chemical, radioactive wastes is changing the geochemical view of the Ocean, involving living organisms directly into these transformations. Global transfer of substances with aerosols and river runoffs forms the peculiarities of benthonic deposition in the ocean estuaries and bottom, gives evidence to speak about element redistribution in hydrosphere (Korzh, 1991, others). The climate change has also contributed to the process of redistribution. For instance, according to V.P. Shevchenko’s (2006) data the river runoffs as one of the environmental pollution mechanisms in Arctic became more significant. It is connected with soil melting on the territory previously related to the permafrost zone, that is accompanied by presence of anthropogenic components accumulated for many years in the river water flowing into the seas of the Arctic Ocean (Izrael et al, 2002). Processes taking place in the World Ocean could result in shift of the equilibrium due to its enormous scale. With respect to pollutants the ocean mass serves as an efficient buffer capacity. That is why it is more strongly influenced by the pollutants’ residue disturbing the oceanic life cycles. The heavy metal pollution of the Ocean with such metal as mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, chromium, etc poses a vast threat. Owing to close interconnection among all Earths’s shells it is impossible to predict all consequences of intensive accumulation of toxicants in any of them. As a good example of it may serve a notorious human disease appeared in Minamat prefecture Japan between 1953 and 1960, from which 111 people died or became disable. The cause of the disease was eating fish and shrimps poisoned by dimethylmercury discharged into the sea by polyvinylchloride plant (Barbiue, 1978). Other toxic elements can cause the toxication of human organism as well in case of consumption of sea food (Brieger, Rieders, 1959). Marine animals, filtering organisms in particular, are capable of accumulating radioactive elements entering the ocean after nuclear explosion and industrial effluents. Radioactive wastes, intake of which according R. Kolas (1973) in 1958 amounted about 10 000 tons a year, in 1965 was as much as 100 000 (Barbiue, 1978). Nowadays according to some estimations, at uranium ore extraction and production plants have accumulated 10⁸m³ of radioactive wastes of 1,8 × 10⁵ Cu activity (the data from Rikhvanov, 2009 with reference to Gupalo, 2002) in waste tips and tailings. It is difficult to say what part of this large quantity will enter the hydrosphere.

The flow of organic pollutants into water is also increasing (Barbiue, 1978, Gennadiev et al, 2006). Significant damage is made by large amount of chemical substances produced for military purposes and buried in Barents and other seas.

P.А. Popov (2003, 2007), G.А. Leonova (2008, 2009), Т.I. Moiseenko (2009) and many other researchers showed in their works that there are changes in living matter of fresh water basins connected with anthropogenic-technogenic factors. The results of numerous investigations show the local and global processes of changes in element river water composition and living organisms, обитающих в них (М.S. Panin (2002), Toropov, 2006; А.К. Sviderskiy (2006), Bolsunovsky, et. al. (2005)). All these transformations prove the fact of global changes in hydrosphere geochemical background one more time. Undoubtedly, they have an impact on formation of living matter element composition.

A number of scientists are trying to solve the problem of chemical substance standards (Krivolutskiy, 1984; Goncharuk, Sidorenko, 1986; Izrael et al, 1991; Terytse, Pokarzhevskiy, 1991; Vorobeychik et al, 1994 and others). The serious problem is the search for criteria of definitions «standard», «pollution», «pathology» etc. The question of applying the standard indicators for analysis of environmental conditions and its influence on living organisms, including human organism (as self-preservation instinct does act) is «a corner stone» at development of behavior strategies and taking decisions on pathology prevention and treatment. The problem of load standards in ecosystems have been discussed in our country for more than two decades, but no concept would answer the questions in practice (Fedorov, 1976; Krivolutskiy, 1984; Goncharyk, Sidorenko, 1986; Izrael et al, 1991; Terytse, Pokarzhevskiy, 1991; others). A subject of ecosystem standard assessment could be only the man,though this point of view is not common as for a system itself any condition is «standard» (Vorobeychik et al, 1994, Bezel, 2006). Such an approach to the given problem was developed in Т.D. Alexandrova’s (1988) and D.А. Krivolutskiy’s with coauthors (1984) works. The connection between the state of population health and biogeochemical territory structure allows for the idea of possibility and necessity to develop the parameters of ecological standards based on the study of this structure both in natural landscape and in anthropogenically changed sites.

According to V.V. Dobrovolskiy (1983): «Technogenic dissipation of metals not so affects the planetary pollution as it does harm to the restricted areas … in the sites of local pollution biota is deeply destroyed, there appear conditions dangerous for population. Taking into account the regularities of dissipated element geochemistry is necessary for prediction and prevention of undesirable consequences» (Dobrovolskiy, 1983, p.255).

Researches carried out by the scientists of Siberia (Vorobieva et al, 1992; Moskvitina, 1988, 1999; Moskvitina, Kokhanov, 2002; Kuranova, 1992, 2003; Kuranov, 2000, 2009; Babenko, 2000, 2006; Leonova, 2008, 2009; Popov, 1996, 2000 and many others) show convincingly the correctness of the conclusion. Thus, Numerous studies performed in Tomsk Oblast in different periods have demonstrated that the main enterprises of the city have a sufficient impact on geochemical peculiarities of various environments, including the composition of living organisms. Influence of the city is shown in the works of Tomsk researchers А.P. Boyarkina, N.V. Vasilieva, G.G. Glukhov (see Rikhvanov et al. 1993). Thus, А.P. Boyarkina et al. (1980) stated the decrease in a number of elements depending on the distance from Tomsk city in such media as milk, honey, children’s hair (Table 2.2).

N.S. Moskvitina’s et al (1999, 2000) have stated that the elements accumulated in the organs of mammals, mice in particular living in the sites with high technogenic load, correspond to geochemical characteristics of the region involved.

Table 2.2.

Microelement content (mg/kg) in different environments selected at different distance from the city (from А.P. Boyarkina, 1980).

Element	Children’s hair				Honey				Milk
	Near zone	Far zone	AC	Near zone		Far zone	AC	5 km		15 km	30 km
Br Na K Cl Rb Zn Fe Au Sc Co	0.327 10.4 16.79 59.92 - - - - - -	0.104 3.89 7.11 23.51 - - - - - -	3 2.7 2.4 2.5 - - - - - -	- - - - - - - 0.396 0.253 0.258		- - - - - - - 0.157 0.145 0.100	- - - - - - - 2.5 1.7 2.5	14.20 - - - 13.82 16.06 34.03 - - -		13.82 - - - 19.91 15.71 59.49 - - -	11.01 - - - 13.82 17.15 68.63 - - -

Note: «-» - element is not determined; AC – Accumulation coefficient.

These investigations were made in the impact zone of the Tomsk north industrial region characterized by large number of plants of different profile affecting the adjacent territories.

А.S. Babenko (2000) points out that the most suitable object for observation of some rare-earth element dissipation (Th, Hf, Yb, Eu, Rb) are staphylinides, whereas for the elements U, Br grey-sided voles are preferable (Babenko, 2000).

V.N. Kuranova et al (1992, 2003) stated that microelement composition of amphibians reflects the impact of environment on them.

G.А. Leonova’s (2009), Popov’s (2001), А.V. Toropov’s (2006) researches prove clearly the influence of technogenesis on water biota – plankton, algae, and fish at local level.

L.P. Volkotrub’s studies (1995) showed the necessity of improvements in monitoring techniques of technogenic pollutions to reveal the sites with high risk of human diseases.

Hence, by the present moment extensive material about biogeochemistry of living organisms has been accumulated, that requires consideration and enhancement of traditional approaches to the analysis of biogeochemical indicators in terms of rapid and significant changes in biosphere.