1. Relation of identity

Synonymy –a simultaneous usage of a few synonyms within context. (She was lovely, pretty, beautiful. – All these days she was troubled and depressed. – Вона була красивою, чарівною, неперевершеною дівчиною.)

Euphemism – the usage of a mild world/expression for a rude, instant or unpleasant one (The lady is past her prime. – To join the majority, дуже старий – похилого віку, щоб тебе нечистий взяв!).

Periphrasis – is a description of the person objects of phenomenon used instead of direct name and supply characteristics for making this description recognizable. (The great reformer – Peter the Great, Iron Lady – Thatcher – Великий Кобзар)

2. Relation of contrast

Irony – is defined as usage of words in meanings opposite to their customary acceptance (It was very clever of you to ask questions like that. Така гарненька, що як подивиться у віконце , що потім собаки цілий тиждень гавкають на те віконце).

Antithesis – is a juxtaposition of two objects or ideas with the purpose to underline the dissimilarity.

Black and white, day and night, вогонь та лід

Oxymoron – is an attribute ascribed to an object or phenomenon that is incompatible with its nature.

Живий труп, speaking silence, silent answer.

3. Relation of inequality

Gradation – arranging a few ideas in such a way that each next one is stronger or more emotional than a previous one: I am sorry – I am so sorry – I am so extremely sorry. – Він загубив кар’єру, майбутнє, все своє життя.

Anticlimax – is arranging a few ideas in such a way that they fall of importance by the end.

She is a brave woman, who won’t be afraid to face a devil or a mouse

Цього не здобудеш ані за любов, ані за гроші.

Hyperbole – a purposeful exaggeration for the sake of expressiveness.

I haven’t seen you for ages. Я мало не вмер коли почув це.

Litotes a purposeful understatement when an idea is expressed by the negation of an opposite: That was not a bad idea. Ви були недалекі від істини.

8. THE PHRASE AS A NON-COMMUNICATIVE UNIT IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN

Phrase (словосполучення) is any grammatically correct combination of words. It`s characterized by its semantic, structure, the interrelations between its components.

• Endocentric (ендоцентричне)-that belong to the same class as one or both of their components (#Tom&Mary came yesterday; великий дім – noun phrase, іменникове словосп.).

• Exocentric(екзоцентричне) – those in which the whole phrase belongs neither to the classes, to which its components belong.(# Tom ran away. – neither nominal nor verbal)

Interrelation between components:

a) Coordinate(сурядне)- none of the components depend on one another, they are equal and independent (#boys&girls; весело і спритно).

b) Subordinate (підрядне)-the head word(1)+its modifier(2) or adjunct (#fine(2) weather(1), ступати(1 гол слово) повільно(2модифікатор) ).They can be noun, verb, adjective(гарна Погода), adverb(повільно&важко)phrases.

Тільки в Yкр.Types Of Interrelationship:

agreement(узгодження)-the Modifier Agrees In The Form of The Headword – рід число відмінок

(великий дім-великому дому);

government(керування)–форма Гол.слова визн. форму залежності(дах дому,початок лекції);

parataxis- parə'taksɪs (прилягання)– doesn’t bring the change of the forms of the element (#писати швидко, робити старанно).

c) Nexus - is a predicative phrase. Elements are interdependent (взаємозалежні) and both participate in creating the category of predicativity. Nexus phrases make the basis of a sentence.

The nominal element denotes the personal component of predicativity.

The verbal element denotes its tense and modality components.

(Tom Ran Away; вони З’явилися)

Only in English. Eng phrases – the semantic of the phrase is determined with 3 factors:

1. The way semantics is determined. Semantics of components(#dog house).Their order (#house dog). Semantic interrelations between them (#wine guard, wine waitor..).

2. N+N combinations–noun Phrase Where Both Elements are expressed by nouns in common case (unique in english)

S+P (subject predicate): #graduate student, class strugle; Lady doctor, boy friend

Attributive: # silk robe, iron bridge.

Adverbial: #night shift, Britain tour [туэ].

9. THE DENOTATIVE AND CONNOTATIVE COMPONENTS IN THE STRUCTURE OF MEANING

Meaning is a realization of the notion by means of certain language.

Lexical meaning has a complex structure, which depends on various factors. Lexical meaning contains two main components: denotative (обозначающий, называющий)[dɪ'nəutətɪv] and connotative (сопутствующий, ассоциативный) meaning.

Denotative meaning is obligatory and provides a criterion of the correct use of the word. Denotative meaning is associated with its referent, that is an object or phenomenon, which has given word names. It may have one constant referent (#moon, дощ) or several referents (#for a word “hand” there are such referents: part of human arm, a pointer on a clock, a person(workman)). Denotative meaning doesn’t always have a referent. Many English and Ukr adjectives and adverbs have diffusive denotative meanings (#good, expensive, slowly, молодий,здоровий,швидко).

Connotative meaning is optional is an additional, -non-criterial component of lexical meaning. It`s unstable and in most cases it reveals itself only through context.

It conveys expressiveness, evaluativeness, emotiveness, and stylistic coloring.

Expressiveness is a linguistically expressed image-bearing quality of an object, phenomenon, or event of our words and life (#to adore vs love).

Evaluativeness is a linguistically expressed people’s attitude towards an object, phenomenon or event(#celebrated- for special achievements).

Emotiveness is a linguistically expressed emotional state or emotional attitude of a person towards an object, phenomenon, or event (#mummy vs mother ).

Stylistic coloring is a linguistically expressed stylistic quality of a word. A good illustration of stylistic connotations is synonyms. (#to begin, to start, to get started-to get going, to get cracking(colloq stylistic connotation)-to commence(bookish stylistic connotation). (slay vs kil)

e.g. Terrific

• The denotative component of the lexical meaning of the word is “frightening”

• The expressive connotation is “very very good”

• Terrific beauty, terrific pleasure

• It` s the connotative meaning in a word which helps to create irony, sarcasm, metaphor and other figures of speech.