3. The borrowed element

In English:

A borrowed word is a word taken from another language and modified in accordance with norms of adopting language.

Two ways of borrowing:

1. oral speech

Oral borrowings took place mainly during the old English period.

1. they are mostly root words (monosyllabic)

2. they completely assimilated (dinner, cat take, cup)

2. written speech

Written borrowings appeared in the middle English period.

1. words of two and more syllables

2. they usually preserve their spelling

3. many of them are only partly assimilated (regime, valise, matins, café, ballet)

Sources of borrowing:

Greek (classical element) – Helen, idiom, comma, colon, synonym

Latin (the classical element) – cherry, pear, cup, kitchen

Old French (Norman French) – court, plate, battle

Scandinavian (Old Norwegian) – call, take, window, sky, skirt, skin, skill

Minor sources of borrowings:

Italian (balcony), German (waltz), Russian (intelligentsia) - 120 languages.

Borrowed affixes:

-ion French from latin - denotes act or state (confusion)

-or Latin – person or thing (generator)

-ess Latin – denotes female nouns (actress)

En- Greek – denotes “in” “within” – encase

De- Latin - denotes “away” “from” “down” – degas

UKRAINIAN:

Many borrowings from Germanic languages: блюдо, колодязь, короп, скло

Latin: дошка, котел

Greek: корабель, хрест

Iranian: бог, рай, ватра

Direct borrowings: вівтар, вино, кит

Turkic: бісер, богатир, боярин, хан, товар

Borrowings: bookish Greek: алілуя, астрономія, симфонія, синтаксис

Germanic: якір, стяг

Scandinavian: Ігор, Ольга, варяг

Persian: базар, собака, шатер

Lithunian: бурчати, ківш, куль

Turkic: козак, курінь, майдан, отара, табун

Czech: барва, влада, владар

Moscow period: new Ukrainian words continued to be formed from native and foreign stems mainly through affixation and compounding – городина, молодик, перепічка, полумисок.

Sovietperiod: антирадянський, держплан, колгосп – Ukrainian absorbed a great number of sovietisms in the areas of administration and ideology.

Post-sovietic period:

1. reanimation of Ukrainian proper words: доставка – доставлення

2. formation of new lexical units from native and foreign stems through affixation and compounding – дебюрократизація, посадовець, кіноринок.

3. semantic re-interpretation of existing words through metaphoric transfer of meaning.

Могильник – burial ground, burial ground for radioactive prod.

4. mas formation of partly shorterned forms

5. mass borrowings

Sources of borrowing into Ukrainian:

Russian: законопослушний, тусовка, бомж

French: кутюрэ, шарм, фуршет

German: автобан, полтергейст

Japan: ниндзя, айкидо, бонсай

Old Greek: холокост, харизма

4. Figures of quality in r and eng:

Metaphoric	Metonymic	Mixed group
Metaphor – the transformations of one object or name to another on the basis of an imaginary similarity (She is a flower of a girl, a devil of a woman, квітка, а не дівчина. Він перетворив моє життя на пекло).	Metonymy – transference of the name or an object to another on the basis of real connection between two objects. A connection between object and its location (The White house gave no answer. Усі дівчата виглядали чарівно у хутрах та діамантах. – In all the times the British Crown ruled half of the world. Київ привітав гостей.)	Allegory – presenting of general idea though a concrete image; the relationship between what is meant and used may be either metaphoric or metonymic. Metaphoric allegory – most of the proverbs – (as a tree falls, so it will lie. all is not gold that glitters. Не погань криниці, бо схочеш водиці.) Metonymic allegory – копійка рубль береже, an apple a day keeps the doctor away.
Simily – a comparison of two objects with the idea of giving an expressive characteristic to one of them. (as….as наче, Her dress was snow-white. Злий як собака, голодний як вовк).	Synecdoche – the usage of the name of a part for a whole, singular for plural, one object for a whole class of similar. Singular – plural (вовк – хижак. A student is not an uncommon. Ноги моей не будет в твоем доме, a blue coat in front of me was on my way. Hands wanted. Кішка – свійська тварина.)	Antonomasia–the usage of proper names for common nouns. Metaphoric Antonomasia: is based upon usage of historical or literary personages to characterize smb. (My husband is a really Othello – Це було його Ватерло. Answer the phone, your Romeo is calling.) Metonymic antonomasia uses the names of masters for their creations: ( I`ve got a complete Shakespeare in my library. На полиці в мене Коцюбинський. Він знає напам’ять всього Шевченка.)
Epithet – a figurative attribute, giving a characteristic to object etc. (sunny smile, золоте листя)
Personification – is prescribing human qualities to lifeless things: (The moon was walking silently among the dark sky. The smile of the Sun. The kiss of the wind. Реве та стогне Дніпр широкий.)

5.THE VERB AS A PART OF SPEECH. CATEGORIES OF THE VERB IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN

VERB is a notional part of speech that tells about an action or a state

• Lex-gr. meaning: action, state, process;

• Stem-building elements:

ENG: Sufixes: -ise (summerise), -ify (simplify), -en (strengthen),-ive (decive), -ade (exagurade).

Prefixes: re- (remake), under- (underneath), over-(overwork), out-.

Lexico-gr morphemes – post position: to take care of, stand up…

UKR: преф: пере-читати, недо-робити, над-кусити

Суф: (1 диєвідміна) -ути, -юти,(печуть,малюють) (2 диєвідміна) -ати(писати),-яти(сприяти),

частка -ся, зустрічати-ся

• Gram categories: ENG: Mood(спосіб), order, voice(стан), aspect(вид), tense, person(особа), number. УКР: спосіб, стан, вид, час, особа, число, рід (мин.ч)

• Combinability: multilateral (Yesterday I saw him in the club. Я читав цю книгу неодноразово.)

Subjective: I am speeling.(сумувати) – V+N subject

Objective: To love smb. V+N subj.+N obj. – can be transitive (take direct object – to love smb) and intransitive (indirect object – непрям додаток) – наполягати на чомусь

• Functions in the sentence: finites – predicate (Я пишу листа; I’m going for a walk.); non-finites – adverbial, complement, attribute. Non-finites Are Never Used As Predicates. Participle is used as adverb, adverbial modifier.

STRUCTURE: simple-прості (play, їсти), derived-похідні (rewrite, віддячити), compound-складні( blindfold, око замилювати), composite (give up)

SEMANTIC: Notional- повнозначні (live, play, жити, ходити), semi-notional - напівповнозначні {modal and link V}(become, grow, становитися, мусити), auxiliary-допоміжні (буду малювати; have been writing).

FORMAL: regular, irregular. I Дієв –уть/ють - писати, II Дієв – ать/ять – говорити)

CLASSIFICATION OF Vs AS TO THEIR COMBINABILITY:

• Subjective (rest, die, лежати, сидіти)

• Objective (used in PV) (read, write, робити,збирати)

  • Intransitive (to speak about)

  • Transitive (DO) (to give a hand, читати книгу)

В укр. М. тільки ПЕРЕХ Д можуть вживатися в пасивному стані.

Finites and non-finites share the categories of voice, order, aspect.

Non-finites(безособові): participle 1, 2, gerund and infinitive.

UKR: диєприкм, диєприсл, інфінітив.

THE CATEGORY OF VOICE

Active – the action is issuing from the subject.

He writes – Він пише.

Passive – the action I experienced by the object.

The letter is written. – Лист написан.

e.g. She showed me(ind obj) her books (DO).

Her books were showed to me. I was shown her books.

Mother sent for the doctor. The doctor was sent for by the mother.

The category of voice shows whether the action is presented as an issue from the subject or experienced by the object and is the opposition of 2 forms.#to write – no category of voice,#to be written (passive voice).

In Ukrainian – it is transitive.In Engish – objective. #Her address was given to me.

Direct and indirect objects can be in Passive construction in Engl. + prepositional objects have got passive. (#Soon the plane was lost sight of). The category of voice is similar in Engl and Ukr.

Стан: вона показала мені свои книги. (непрям додаток)

Ее книги були показани мені

Voice: She showed me her books (indirect object)

Her books were shown to me. (passive)

Mother sent for the doctor.

The doctor was sent for.

THE CATEGORY OF ORDER

(perf/nonperf)(в укр нет!!!)

e.g. writes – has written.

THE CATEGORY OF ASPECT

Aspect(continious/noncont)/ вид(док/ не док) – characterizes the action as previous to some particular moment or another action.

e.g. to write- to be writing

писати – написати

THE CATEGORY OF MOOD

Mood(indicative/imperative)/спосіб (дійсн, наказ, умовн) – the relation of the action denoted from the speaker’s viewpoint;

6.PRODUCTIVE WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN

Word formation is the creation of new words from elements already existing in the language. From the point of view of their productivity, the ways of word-formation fall into two groups: highly productive and less productive.

The highly productive ways of morphological word-formation are:

• In Engl: affixation, conversion, compounding

• In Ukr: affixation (usually combined with sound interchange), compounding

Affixation (derivation) is the formation of new words by means of attaching. There are 3 possible types of Engl and Ukr affixes:

prefixes (affixes that precede the stem),

suffixes (follow the stem),

infixes(occur between stems).

Eng highly productive prefixes: dis-(disclose),in-,il-,im-(immigrant),ir-,mis-(mislead),over-(oversleep),out-(outbreak),re-(rewrite),un-(undress),under-(underestimate)

Eng.less productive prefixes:arch-(archbishop),ana-(anafront),dys-(dyslectic),ex-(exchange),per-(perforce).

Uk.prefixes,e.g.:під-(підрозділ),пере-(пересадити).

Eng productive suffixes:-er(reader),-ism(realism),-ist(pacifist),-ness (goodness),-ty(novelty).

Eng less productive:-ly(friendly),-ous(furious),-some(tiresome),-dometc

Uk productive suffixes: -аль(коваль), -ак(літак), -ня(кохання); -ав(ласкавий), -ач (ледачий);-яти (підкоряти);-о(високо),-у(зранку).

Conversion is an affixless way of word-building. It`s changing a part of speech without changing the morphemic shape of the original word.

Productive types of conversion in Eng:

V<N (verbs converted from nouns) (Do you bottle your fruit or freeze it?),

Adj<N (Do you often do your morning exercises?),

N<Adj(There are special schools for the blind),

N<V(Don’t be a bore!).

Compounding is morphological joining of 2 or more stems in one word.

There are following types of stems in Eng and Ukr compound words:

simple(/root)stems(#classmate,хо-ровод),

derived stems(sleeping-bag,малолітка),

compound stems (flower-potstand,жук-короїд),

abbreviated and shortened stems(V-day(=Victory day), хімзавод).

The less productive ways of morphological word-formation in Eng and in Ukr include: back formation, shortening, sound imitation, stress interchange, ellipsis, blending.

7. Figures of relations: rel of identity, contrast and inequality