Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely assimilated into the English language preserving their former spelling and pronunciation. Most of them (e.g. chic, chagrin, en passant) have corresponding English synonyms. The stylistic functions of barbarisms and foreign words are similar, they are used to create a local colouring, to identify a personage as a foreigner, or to show his/her mannerism.

5. Exotic words are borrowed foreign words denoting objects characteristic of a certain country (canzonet, matador). They have no synonyms in the language-borrower. do not form a lexico-stylislic paradigm and therefore are not considered to be lexical EM, but nevertheless they may be used for stylistic purposes.

6. Borrowings, if they are assimilated, do not differ much from native words as far as their stylistic aspect is concerned. They are usually high-flown synonyms of neutral native words (to commence - to begin. labour - work, female - woman).

7. Bookish (learned) words are mostly used in official or high-flown style (catenate, depicture, disimprove, dalliance). In official usage, they mark the text as belonging to this or that style of written speech, but when used in colloquial speech or in informal situations, they may create a comical effect.

1. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF CONVERSA TIONAL (LOW-FLOWN) WORDS

1. lere we refer:

/. colloquial words,

2. general-slang words (interjargon),

3. Special slang words (social and professional jargons),

4. dialectal words

5. vulgarisms.

Some linguists differentiate slang and jargon, but the difference is vague and is practically irrelevant for stylistics. Conversational words of all kinds are widely used for stylistic purposes. There are four speech spheres in which they are mostly largely used: everyday speech, newspaper language, poetry, and fiction.

In newspaper language, colloquial words and word combinations, and sometimes general slang words, are used to give an expressive evaluation of facts and events. In modern poetry, words of all layers are most widely used. Lyrical poetry allows the usage of various non-poetic words to create the atmosphere of sincerity, confidence etc. Slang words in fiction (mostly in dialogues) add to the informality and emotiveness of the character's speech ■alongside with indicating social and speech peculiarities of the personages.

Colloquial words

Classification I. May be divided into three bis groups

1. literary colloquial;

2. familiar colloquial:

3. low colloquial.

Classification II. According to the relations between their form and meaning:

1. words which are based on the change of their phonetic or morphological form without changing their lexical and stylistic meaning;

2. words which are the result of the change of both their form and lexico-stylistic meaning;

3. words which resulted from the change of their lexical and/or lexico-stylistic meaning without changing their form.

/ - The first subgroup comprises such varieties of word-form change as:

1. clipping (shortening): serge - sergeant, caff- caffeteria\

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2. contamination of a word combination: leggo - let's go. kinna - kind of c'mon - come on;

3. contamination of grammatical forms: I'd go. there's, we're going.

These words have no lexico-stylistic paradigms. They possess denotative meaning only.

2. - Within the second group of colloquialisms, we may distinguish two varieties of the word-form change leading to the alteration of its lexico-stylistic meaning:

1. the change of the grammatical form which brings the change of the lexico-stylistic meaning: heaps - very many. a handful - a person causing a lot of trouble;

2. the change of the word-building pattern which causes the emergence of another lexico- stylistic meaning through;

• affixation: oldie, tenner, clippie;

• compounding: backroom boy. clip-joint;

• conversion: to bag, teach-in;

• telescopy: swellegant,flush, fruice;

-shortening and affixation: Archie (Archibald);

• compounding and affixation: strap-hanger, arty-crafty.

All these words form a lexico-stylistic paradigm as they have synonyms among neutral and literary words and are characterised by various connotations while giving additional characteristics to the denotate.

3. - The third subgroup of colloquial words is the most numerous and comprises:

1. words with emotive-expressive meaning only: oh, bach, ah as well as word combinations having a special expressive function: 1 never. Good (Great) heavens, God forbid;

2. words and word combinations having both connotative and denotative meaning where the former one prevails: terribly, you don't say so, did he really;

3. words in which denotative and connotative meanings interplay: bunny - a waitress, colt-team — young team;

4. words in which denotative meaning in certain contextual conditions gives rise to a new connotative meaning: affair - business, to have an affair - to be in love, beggar - poor person, lucky beggar - lucky person;

5. words denotative and connotative meanings of which are completely different from their former meanings: chanter (poetic) - a singer; chanter (col.) - a person who sells horses at the market.

»

Slang

is composed of highly colloquial words whose expressiveness and novelty make them emphatic and emotive as compared to their neutral synonyms.

We can distinguish two varieties of slang;

1} general slang (interiargon)

2. and special slangs (social as well as professional jargons). Some of the former slangisms may enter the colloquial or even the neutral layer of the vocabulary {phone, flu. sky- scrapei). Novelty is the most impressive feature of slang. As it disappears, they lose their expressiveness.

Vulgarisms

are the words which are not generally used in public. However, they can be found in modern literature nowadays, though formerly they were tabooed or marked by the initial letters only.

Dialectal words

• are used to intensify the emotive and expressive colouring of speech which is primarily determined by the peculiarities of social or geographical environment (‘ud - would,

‘im - him, ‘aseen - have seen, canna - cannot, dinna - don t, sportin - sporting)

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STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF WORDS HAVING NO LFXICO-

STYLIST1C PARADIGM

1. terms,

2. nomenclature words.

3. historical words.

4. exotic words.

5. lexical neologisms.

Terms are words and word combinations expressing scientific and scholarly notions in which essential properties of the object or phenomenon are reflected. Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and, therefore, with a set of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science or humanities. For example, language and speech may be used as synonyms in everyday usage, but in dc Saussure’s theory, they are opposed to each other as terms.

Nomenclature words are very close to terms: they refer to a definite branch of human activity, mainly professional, e.g. names of minerals, chemical elements, types of cars etc.

Historical words denote objects and notions referring to the past.

Exotic words denote notions and objects unknown or rarely met in the given language community.

Lexicalneologisms are new (or old) words denoting new notions.

All the words mentioned above, being used in special texts, have no stylistic functions: their usage is determined by their nominative function, i.e. to define the denotate.

In fiction, they may acquire connotative meaning due to their syntagmatic relations with both stylistically marked and neutral words. For example, in Live with Lightning, Say No to Death. The Citadel, Airport, they are used to create the life-like atmosphere of a laboratory, hospital etc.

When used in monologues or dialogues, terms become a means of the speech characterisation. Sometimes, while incompatible with their context, terms may be used to create a satirical or humorous effect.

STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF PHRASEOLOGY

1. There are many phraseological units which are quite neutral: in fact, in turn, for instance, in order that, in principle. To this group we should also refer historical PhU: the secular aim. the Blue and the Grey, the common beam', lexical neologisms: oil crisis, energy> crisis: and terminological PhU: supersentencial units, expressive means etc.

2. Additional (connotative) information of PhU, as that of any word, may be of four types: functional-stylistic, emotional, evaluative, and expressive-figurative.

Accordingly, PhU may be divided into tw^ro similar classes:

1. PhU having a lexico-stvlistic paradigm.

2. having no lexico-stvlistic paradigms.

PhU having a lexico-stylistic paradigm also fall into

literary (be in accord with somebody, play upon advantage, most and least, bring to mould,-, ad ovo, ad hoc. a la carte.; a heart of oak, Achilles heel)

conversational ones (Adams ale, slit the bat, ask me another, monkey's allowance, to get on the ball, admiral of the red, grab for altitude, gef the bird, sell one's back, get the wind up. a bit of jam, get somebody on his ears).

Peculiar - своеобразный - stylistic usage of PhU is accounted for the possibility of their structural and contextual transformations which are oriented to achieving a definite stylistic effect.

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Structural transformations of PhU may be represented by:

1. expansion of PhU, e.g. When you had a weak case and knew it, Alan thought, even straws should be grasped at firmly (from to catch at a straw);

2. reduction of PhU as the result of the compression of proverbs, sayings, quotations etc. e.g. Howaden added severely: "Better too much too early than too little too late " (from better late than never);

3. inversion of the components of PhU. It implies the change of the PhU structure while preserving its original components, e.g. Fortunately, it's only the cat's head and we still have a firm grip on the body (from to let the cat out of the bag).

Contextual transposition of PhU presupposes that a PhU may be totally reconsidered and reinterpreted in context, e.g. Pooh goes visiting and gets into a tight place (from to be in a tight comer).

STYLISTIC SEMASIOLOGY

Stylistic semasiology. Lexico-semantic SD's.

Figures of Substitution: (Замена)

1. Figures of Quantity (hyperbole, meiosis. litotes),

2. Figures of Quality (metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism; metaphor, epithet, antonomasia. personification; irony).

• Hyperbole - a deliberate exaggeration of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon (to be scared to death; to give the world to do smth.; to beg a thousand pardons);

• Meiosis - a deliberate diminution of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon (to be the drop of water; a cat-size pony; to be situated in one minute from here; he is a real microbe).

• Litotes - a specific variant of meiosis (to be not without sense of humour; to be not unreasonable, not impossible).

• Metonvmv is the transference of a name of one object to another object based upon the principle of contiguity of the two objects. Lexical metonymy: table’s leg, teapot's nose, hand, a hand (a worker), grave (death)); Contextual metonymy (the other voice shook his hand; to be followed by a pair of heavy boots).

• Synecdoche - naming the whole object by mentioning part of it / using the name of the whole object to denote a constituent part of this object (the hall; the school: the blue suit; the museum).

• Periphrasis - the replacement of a direct name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of some quality of this thing or phenomenon. Logical periphrasis is based upon one of the inherent properties of the object (weapons - instruments of destruction; love - the human weakness); Figurative periphrasis is based upon metaphor or metonymy (to marry - to tie the knot; money - root of evil).

• Euphemism - used to replace an unpleasantly sounding word / word-combination (God - lord, heaven; to die - to be gone, to be no more, to go west, to join the majority, to pass away; idiots - mentally abnormal).

• Metaphor - the result of transference of the name of one object to another object based upon similarity of the objects (time passes; the fire flashed from his eyes being able to melt the glasses).

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• Epithet attributes which describe objects expressively (loud ocean; glorious sight; helpless loneliness; blank face; tremendous pressure; heart-burning desire; do-it-yourself command: go-to devil request; head-to-toe beauty; I-don't-want-to-do-it feeling).

• Antonomasia - the identification of human beings with things which surround them (John is a real Romeo/ Snake/ the Napoleon) - Antonomasia - (a variant of METAPHOR) a trope which consists in the use of a proper name to denote a different person w ho possesses some qualities of the primary owner of the name: * (Every Caesar has his Brutus (O'Henry)) II. (a variant of PEROPHRASIS) - a figure of speech which names a familiar person in a indirect way: *(the Maid of Orleans (for Jean of Arc), the day that comes between a Saturday and monday)

• Personification - the speaker ascribcs human behaviour, thoughts, and opinions to inanimate objects (Lie / Love is a strange creature). Personification - (a variant of METAPHOR)

• a trope in which an "animate" or human feature is ascribed to an inanimate object or to an abstract concept: *(a cold, unseen stranger)

• Allegory - is antonomasia used in the whole text.

• Irony - breaking the principle of sincerity of speech (favoured country, noble illustration).

• Apostrophe - a figure of speech which consists in addressing an absent, dead or invented person, as well as animals and things.

Figures of Combination:

1. Figures of identity (simile, synonyms):

2. Figures of contrast (oxymoron, antithesis);

3. Figures of inequality (climax, anticlimax, zeugma, pun).

• Simile - the comparison of two objects having smth in common (as, as if, as though, like, so. to resemble).

• Svnonvms (John - he - the man - the victim -...)

• Oxymoron - the combination of words which are semantically incompatible (adj + N; adv + adj: hot snow, pleasantly ugly).

• Paradox - a ststement appears to be self-contradictory, but contains smth of a truth (Cowards die many times before their death).

• Antithesis - an oxymoron realized in a phrase (the age of withdon, the age of foolushness; a happy, healthy man).

• Climax (Gradation) - the arranging of the utterance so that each subsequent component of it increases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration (I'm sorry, so very sorry, so extremely sorry).

• Anticlimax - the arranging of the utterance so that each subsequent component of it decreases significance, importance, emotional tension of narration (he cried, no doubt he's been eating raw onions).

• Zeugma -- consists of three constituents: the basic word stands in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to a couple of adjacent words; the basic word combined with the first adjacent word forms a phraseological word-combinaton; the same basic word combined with the second adjacent word forms a free word-combination (Freddy got out of bed and low spirits).

• Pun - a play of words (Is she engaged? - She's already married. / Carry on. but Peter never ate carrion).

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