The list and specification of connotational meaning vary with different schools and individual scholars and include such entries as:

IX Pragmatic - directed at the desired affect of the utterance, associative connected thorough individual psychological or linguistic association with related and non-related notions.

21 Ideological or conceptual - revealing political, social, ideological preferences of a user: e.g. “The poorer” seems harsh for politicians and they use 'less successful”; “starvation” is being replaced by “undernourishment” ("Чем беднее" кажется резким для политиков, и они используют "менее успешными"; "Голодание" заменяется "недоедания")

3} In terms of stylistics we shall deal with the falling connotative meanings:

Emotive connotations - the emotive component of meaning may have its linguistic expression with the help of suffixes of diminutiveness - уменьшительные - : hubby, tummy, daddy). The emotive component of meaning may have no specific linguistic form, but may be contained in notions which the given words denote. E.g. Lovely, wonderful, horrid. There are words of purely emotive meaning, which belong to interjections (E.g. “Ouch!”, “Oh!”).

Evaluative connotation states the value of the indicated object or notion, based on the rational assessment, which is always based on the opposition. Е/G/ Approval - disapproval. Fashionable - unfashionable. Up-to-date - out-dated

The expressive connotation aims at creating an object, action or phenomenon. - E.g. To work, to toil, to slave.

Stylistic connotation indicates the register or the situation of the communication. - E.g. “maiden” is used predominantly in poetry; “chap” - парень - is used in colloquial speech.

In the semantic actualization of a word the context plays a dual-role:

On one hand, it cuts of all meanings, which are irrelevant for the given communicative situation.

And on the other hand, it foregrounds (висуває на перший план) one of the meaningful options of a word, focusing the communicator’s attention on one of the denotative or connotative components of its semantic structure.

The word stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups differing from each other by the sphere of their possible use:

• The biggest division is made up by neutral words possessing no stylistic connotation and suitable for any communicative situation. E.g. father (neutr.) - parent (book.)

• daddy (colloq.)

• Literary' words serve to satisfy communicative requirements of official, scientific, poetic messages, ect., while the colloquial ones are employed in non-official, every-day communication.

• Colloquialisms (can be in writing; in formal letters, diaries, certain passages) Stylistic classification of the vocabulary of any language is a very complicated

problem. The existing classifications are based on different criteria, which take into account common semantic and stylistic characteristics of words in the given period of time (synchronic approach).

Denotational meaning is inherent - присущий - in any notional word.

Polysemy is inherent in the very nature of words (присуще самой природе слова), since they always contain a generalization of several traits of the object they denote = these elements are called the lexico-semantical variants of the words, which are inter-related due to some common semantic component and form a unity.

If a polysemantic word is not intended to produce a particular stylistic effect it generally actualizes only one concrete lexical meaning, but when a word begins to manifest

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interplay between the primary and derivative meanings a stylistic device of polysemantic effect materializes itself.

The two criteria used for classification are as follows:

1. paradigmatic criterion, i.e. the absence or presence in the word semantics of the additional information (evaluative. emotive, or expressive meaning);

2. syntagmatic criterion, i.e. the character of syntagmatic relations between the lexical or lexical-stylistic meaning of the word and its context.

Both criteria are interconnected.

Classification I.

Every notional word of a natural language carries some definite information. This information may be

basic or denotative and additional or connotative.

L Denotative. The majority of words of the English language possesses denotative information only - so. they are stylistically neutral: man, house, to run, red etc.

This does not mean that they cannot be used for stylistic purposes. A word in fiction acquires new qualities depending on its position, distribution, etc. Practically any word, depending on its context, may acquire ccrtain connotations (honey-bum. sugar-plum).

Z Connotative - there are many words which possess not only basic information but additional information as well. Connotative meaning may be of four types:

1. functional stylistic meaning which is the result of the constant usage of the word in definite speech spheres or situations: foe, maiden, realm are mostly used in poetry: terms and nomenclature words are used in scientific prose style and in official documents;

2. evaluative meanine which bears reference to things, phenomena, or ideas through the evaluation of the denotate: out-of-date-method-time-tested method, firm-obstinate-pig-headed;

3. emotive meaning which expresses the speaker's emotional attitude to the denotate (chit, puppet, jade). Neutral words that name emotions like anger, pleasure, and pain should be distinguished from the above mentioned emotionally coloured words;

4. expressive meaning which does not refer directly to things or phenomena of the objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker, it is based on the metaphoric transfer (speaking of a man - cockerel, bully, buck).

Classification II

1. Words having a lexico-stylisticparadigm which are characterized by:

1. an indirect reference to the object: fat cat (coll.) => a provider of money for political uses (neutral) => denotate;

2. subjective evaluative connotations;

3. words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm are not homogeneous; they may enter the following oppositions:

colloquial vocabulary - bookish vocabulary

4. non-literary words - literary words

& general literary vocabulary - social or dialectal elements special vocabulary

(k contemporary vocabulary — archaic vocabulary.

2. . Words having no lexico-stylistic paradigm are characterized by:

1. a direct reference to the object;

2. the absence of subjective evaluative connotations,

3. strict referential borders;

4. the lack of synonyms. Synonyms that they may have are purely denotative;

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5. the lack of antonyms.

6. Here we refer stylistically neutral words; terms; nomenclature words; historical words; lexical neologisms; and exotic words.

However, the mentioned groups of words are not closed; they are intersecting - one and the same word may belong to two or more groups.

STYUSTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE WORDS HAVING A LEXICO- STYUSTIC PARADIGM

Lexical expressive means of the English language are words which do not only have denotative meaning but connotative as well. Depending on their connotative meaning such words fall into two major groups:

1. literary (high-flown) words which are traditionally linked with poetic, bookish, or written speech

2. conversational (low-flown) words that are most often used in oral, colloquial speech. Literary words are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of speech. Conversational words are constantly changing. Within a period of time they can become high- flown or neutral, e.g. bet. mob. trip. fun. chap.

   1. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF LITERARY (IIIGH-FLOWN) WORDS

Literary words of the English language can be classified into the following groups: poetic diction, archaic words, barbarisms and foreign words, bookish (learned) words.

Poetic diction - Poetic words are stylistically marked, they form a lexico-stylistic paradigm. In the 17th-18th centuries they were widely used in poetry as synonyms of neutral words. In modern poetry such a vocabulary barely exists.

1. Archaic words - are diverse; they include: archaic words (commix - mix);

archaic forms (vale - valley):

historic words (argosy large merchant ship, yeoman, thane, baldric, goblcf) have no synonyms as compared to archaic words which may be replaced by their modern synonyms. Historical words and lexical neologisms having no stylistic meaning, do not form lexico-stylistic paradigms. But archaic words and stylistic neologisms mark the text stylistically, distinguishing if from neutral speech.

poetic words proper (anarch, brine).

In fiction, together with historical words, archaisms create the effect of antiquity, providing a true-to-life historical background and reminding the reader of past habits, customs, clothes etc. The usage of archaisms, incompatible with conversational words, might in some cases lead to a humorous or satirical effect.

2. Lexical neologisms are new words that denote new objects (laser shopping, pop promo, killer satellite)

3. Styiistic neologisms are new names that denote already existing objects and notions (mole a spy who successfully infiltrates an organization: ageism - discrimination of a person on the ground of age). Historical words arc associated with definite stages in the development of a society and cannot be neglected, though the things and phenomena to which they refer no longer exist.

4. Barbarisms and foreign words. There are many borrowings in every language, some of them being assimilated. We may distinguish four groups of such words in English: foreign words, barbarisms, exotic words, and borrowings.

Foreign words are close to barbarisms, but they are characterized by occasional usage only, mainly in literary speech. They do not form a lexico-stylistic paradigm, though they may be used to create some stylistic effect.

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