9. Rate policy:

1. Do not be late to class.

2. Do not skip classes, if you skip to submit a supporting document.

3. Carefully study the course material.

4. Hand over independently job to according to the schedule.

5. Must be aimed at a constant, proactive, independent work.

10. Information to assess the knowledge:

Assessment of the quality of students' knowledge involves three types of control:

1. Current control:

- Visiting lectures (5 %)

- Active work during seminars (15%)

- Compliance with the requirements of independent work (independent solution to all types of work) (20%).

2. Intermediate control:

- Available in between two parts (sections) of the course is held in the form of test and written work on options, presentations and etc. (20 %).

3. The final control - exam in the discipline (40%).

The approximate scheme of assessment of knowledge in the discipline

	Types of occupations and work of students	Number of points (min\max)
I	Current control: - lectures - seminar - independent work	2,5/5 7,5/15 10/20
	Total	20/40
II	Intermediate control: In semester are two controls to 10 points	10/20
	Total	30/60
III	Final control: Exam	20/40
	Total	50/100баллов

The approximate scheme assessments of students' knowledge in scores on the exam

	The examination	The scoring
1	3 (satisfactorily)	20/29
2	4 (good)	30/35
3	5 (excellent)	36/40

Scale of assessment of students' knowledge:

Based on letter system	Digital equivalent points	Percentage points	Based on the traditional system
А	4,0	100	EXCELLENT
А-	3,67	90-94
В+	3,33	85-89	GOOD
В	3,0	80-84
В-	2,67	75-79
С+	2,33	70-74	SATISFACTORILY
С	2,0	65-69
С-	1,67	60-64
Д+	1,33	55-59
Д	1,0	50-54
F	0	0-49	NOT FAIR

Handout

Theme 1. Introduction

The purpose of the lecture: identification and formulation of the main goals, object and subject of the course, the analysis of science as a social institution, as well as the definition of the phenomenon of science and its place in the culture.

Plan:

1. Subject of the course "History and Philosophy of Science."

2. Science as a social institution.

3. The place and role of science in culture: scientism and anti-scientism.

4. The phenomenon of science as a subject of special analysis: internalism and externalism.

Basic concepts: the history of science, the philosophy of science, the components of science as a social institution, scientism and anti-scientism, internalism and externalism.

The subject of the course "History and Philosophy of Science." Science is the subject of a special analysis. As part of the discipline of "History and Philosophy of Science" Science is considered from the standpoint of its historical development, as well as methodological and ideological grounds, based on the philosophical analysis of the phenomenon of science.

The purpose of discipline "History and Philosophy of Science" is to introduce graduate students to the structure of scientific knowledge, the methods of scientific research, with the functions of scientific theories and laws; expansion of their ideological outlook; development of ideas about the scientific criteria and requirements to be met by scientific research and its results, as well as the development of the style of scientific thinking through the study of history and philosophy of science.

Problems of the discipline:

- The study of the basic ideas and the results of the philosophy and methodology of science;

- Knowledge of specific scientific research;

- Identification of the philosophical and methodological problems of the study of scientific knowledge;

- Assistance to independent and critical thinking.

The object of the course "The history and philosophy of science" is science as a cognitive activity, tradition, a social institution and as a special sphere of culture. The subject of the course is the study of the general laws of scientific knowledge in its historical development and the changing social and cultural context, as well as limiting the epistemological assumptions that define the awareness that such knowledge.

Science as a social institution is a special, relatively independent form of social consciousness and the sphere of human activity, serving as a historical product of a long development of human civilization, spiritual culture, to develop their own styles of communication and interaction of people, forms of division of labor research and standards consciousness of scientists.

The process of institutionalization of science evidence of its independence, the official recognition of the role of science in the social division of labor, and the claims of science to participate in the distribution of material and human resources. Science as a social institution has its own branch structure and uses both cognitive and organizational and moral resources. As a social science institute includes the following components:

- Combination of knowledge and their carriers;

- The existence of specific cognitive goals and objectives;

- The performance of certain functions;

- Availability of specific means of learning and institutions;

- To develop forms of monitoring, review and assessment of scientific advances;

- The existence of certain sanctions.

Modern scientific practice is carried out only within the framework of science, understood as a social institution. Institutional modern science dictates the ideal of rationality which totally subordinated to the socio-cultural and institutional requirements and regulations. The process of institutionalization includes the following components:

- Responsible for the production of new knowledge, academic and university research;

- Concentration of resources required for scientific innovations and their implementation,

- The banking system and the system of financing;

- Legitimizing innovations executive and legislative bodies, such as the Scientific Council and the Higher Attestation Commission in the process of awarding of academic degrees and titles;

- Press Institute;

- Organizational and administrative institutions;

- A judicial institution designed to allow or stop the internal academic conflicts.

  Currently, the institutional approach is one of the dominant instances of scientific development. However, it has drawbacks: exaggeration of the role of formal aspects, lack of attention to the psychological and socio-cultural foundations of human behavior, rigid prescriptive scientific activity, ignoring the informal development opportunities.

The place and role of science in culture: scientism and anti-scientism. Science and technological progress have led not only to certain benefits and improve the quality of people's lives, but also gave rise to destructive forces threatening the existence of human civilization. Therefore, in modern culture and philosophy science has a controversial issue. This is evident in two opposing ideological positions - scientism and anti-scientism.

From the perspective of scientism, scientific knowledge is the highest cultural value and sufficient condition for human orientation in the world. Ideal for scientism are the results and methods of natural sciences. At the same time scientism downplayed or even denied by the social sciences as having no cognitive value and rejected the humanistic nature of science itself.

Anti-scientism underlines the limitations of science, and in its extreme forms, interprets it as a force alien and hostile to the true essence of human virtue, destroying culture. Methodological basis of anti-scientism is absolutisation negative results of science and technology (the aggravation of the ecological situation, the danger of war, etc.)

There is no doubt that the two positions with regard to the science contain a number of rational points, the synthesis of which will more accurately determine its place and role in the modern world. At the same time the same mistake as the prohibitive absolute science, and underestimated and the more completely reject it. It should be an objective attitude towards science, scientific knowledge, to see them sharply contradictory process of development.

The phenomenon of science as a subject of special analysis: internalism and externalism. In the history and philosophy of science have developed two contrasting approach sees science as a special phenomenon, it is internalism and externalism.

Internalism makes the emphasis on factors related to the intrinsic nature of scientific knowledge. Paradigms, methodological programs and other ways to solve scientific problems, in other words, its own cognitive tools of science is an essential factor in its development. Therefore, the main focus on the study of science supporters internalism directed to the description of actual cognitive processes.

Externalism considers that science arise due to her external social, economic, political circumstances. Therefore, the main task of the science is the reconstruction of social and cultural conditions and orientations of scientific and cognitive activity at certain stages of development of science. These terms and guidelines serve as the main factor directly determines the emergence and development of science, its structure, especially the direction of its evolution.

Internalism and externalism sidedly exaggerating the role and importance of the really important factors in the development of science, whereas it is necessary to consider both internal and external conditions for the development of science in their relationship and interaction.

Theme 2. Ideological foundations of science

The purpose of the lecture: revealing the features of scientific knowledge and the definition of the philosophical foundations of science.

Plan:

1. Features of scientific knowledge.

2. Worldview's role in the development of the philosophy of science.

3. Humanistic horizons of science.

Basic concepts: the objective laws of reality, perception of truth, the language of science, culture of thinking.

Features of scientific knowledge:

- The main objective of scientific knowledge is the discovery of the objective laws of reality;

- The immediate goal and the supreme value of scientific knowledge - comprehension of objective truth;

- Scientific knowledge opens the possibility not only of predicting the future, but also its formation;

- The language of science (both natural and artificial);

- Specific tools (scientific equipment);

- The culture of thinking scientist.

In modern methodology is also made other scientific criteria, such as rigor, consistency, verifiability, openness to criticism, reproducibility, etc.

Worldview's role in the development of the philosophy of science. Philosophy, as the methodology of science, is also the basis of scientific knowledge. There are several varieties of the philosophical foundations of science. Ontological foundations of science understand of the picture of the world, the laws of functioning and development. The epistemological foundations of science are the provisions of the nature of scientific knowledge. The logical foundations of science are science rules adopted abstraction, concept formation and statements. The methodological foundations of science understand of the methods of opening and acquiring knowledge, methods of proof. Axiological foundations of science understand of the practical and theoretical importance of science as whole or individual sciences in the overall system of science, about the purposes of science, scientific progress.

Ideological grounds are also a kind of philosophical foundations of science. The philosophy of science is the function of ideological interpretation. Philosophy helps justify belief pushes to rethink certain positions and help transform spontaneously formed a human looks at an elaborate, well-founded understanding of the world.

Humanistic horizons of science. Modern philosophy of postmodernism argues that science must recognize their place in the overall system of human culture and outlook. Postmodernism rejects in principle the selection of any one sphere of human activity or a single feature in the outlook as the lead. All that has been created by man, is part of its culture, it is important and necessary for a person to meet their own objectives. That is what should be done post-nonclassical science - to recognize the limits of their efficacy and fruitfulness, to recognize the equality of these spheres of human activity and culture as religion, philosophy, art, and the ability to recognize the impact of non-rational ways of understanding of reality. In addition, the post-modern science is more interested in a way of itself as some kind of social and cultural reality includes a human subject, allowing the element of subjectivity in an objectively true knowledge. This is the modern trend of humanization of science. The resulting image is not frozen; he is focused on continuous renewal, open innovation. In postmodernism the observer is aware of itself part of the test of the world, is actively cooperating with the observed object, knowledge of post-nonclassical science is dialogic.

At the core of ​​the postmodernism the idea of global evolutionism - general, nonlinear, self-modifying, self-organizing, self-regulating system, in the depths of which appear and disappear from the integrity of the physical fields and elementary particles to the biosphere and larger systems. This concept also includes the idea of ​​linearity, the ability to have the opposite effect, the variability of the world. This world is not made up of elementary particles, the building blocks and of a set of processes - vortexes, waves, turbulent motions. This world is like a "bubble" infinitely diverse interacting open systems with feedback. This world is not an object but a subject.

An important feature of post-nonclassical science will have to be complex, blurring and partitions between the traditionally distinct natural, social and technical sciences, the intensification of inter-disciplinary research; the impossibility of the problem is solved without the involvement of these other sciences. Also, scientific activities linked to the revolution in the means of storing and retrieving knowledge (computerization of science, the use of complex and expensive instrument complexes, approximating science to industrial production), with the increasing role of mathematics.

Modern science was a prerequisite for the preparation of the subject of knowledge and a prerequisite for the practical production activities. Modern knowledge is the premise of the production and reproduction of man as the subject of the historical process, as a person, as an individual, which significantly expands the horizons of the humanistic sciences.

Theme 3. Functions of Science

The purpose of the lecture: analysis of the functions of science, defining the role and importance of scientific knowledge in the modern world.

Plan:

1. The functions of science.

2. Science and global issues of our time.

3. Science and modern education system.

Basic concepts: functions of science, global issues, and the educational system.

The functions of science. The most important function of science is the production and multiplication of certain knowledge, which allows revealing and explaining the patterns of the world. This feature can be instantiated into a number of private and closely interrelated functions, such as cognitive, educational, technological, function rationalization of human behavior and activities, and others. The modern science interacts with the various spheres of human life and society. We can distinguish three groups of science's social functions. Firstly, a function of cultural and ideological, and secondly, the function of science as a direct productive force and, thirdly, it functions as a social force, related to the fact that the scientific knowledge and methods are now increasingly used for solving a wide variety of problems arising in the course of social development. Today features of science as a social force in the solution of global problems are very important. Science and global issues of our time. Among the global problems caused by technogenic civilization and threaten the very existence of mankind, there are three main things1. The first is the problem of survival in the face of continuous improvement of weapons of mass destruction. Second, the problem of modernity becomes the growth of the ecological crisis on a global scale. The third problem relates to the need to preserve the identity of the person as a bio-social structure in terms of growing and inclusive process of alienation. It is widely believed that the development of science leads to clearly undesirable consequences associated with the imperfection of science and technology. More convincing is another position that the negative effects of global scale are the result of the irresponsible use of scientific achievements. In this regard, in the philosophy of science raises the problem of responsibility of the scientist, as a theorist and practice. In contemporary philosophy of science acute need for a new understanding of the phenomenon of science, it is necessary to relate the modern form of existence of science with the original or the very idea of ​​science. This leads to the analysis of value-semantic content of science, its purpose and meaning. Philosophers of science have concluded a mismatch of science as a fact and science as an idea. It is important to understand that the solution of global problems lies not in the rejection of scientific and technological development, and to give it a humanistic dimension, which, in turn, raises the issue of a new type of scientific rationality, which includes explicit guidelines and humanistic values. Modern philosophers of science offered for solving the global problems the following ways. Since it is the scientific and technological progress is the main cause of global problems, therefore, the solution of these problems is possible only through improving the technology. As one of the main causes of acute global problems can be called dehumanization of culture, so out of the crisis is seen in the return of true humanism, when a person takes responsibility for his existence. Global problems suggest and indicate disorder in the interaction of society and nature, the solution of global problems require bringing together the latest achievements of the natural sciences, facing the nature, installation, use of evidence-based findings in policy decisions, which ultimately will eliminate anthropogenic the effects of technological progress.

Science and modern education system. With regard to the relationship between science and modern educational system, it is necessary to mention one important point - the basis of modern educational process is the scientific world and the world of education is based on research and best practices. Science involves directional impact on the educational process and may authorize the change in the structure of education, as It applies to all components: goals, means, results, principles, forms and methods. The educational process serves as a "source area", which is a meeting of the individual and of science.

The most common for the function of science and education is a focus on the survival of mankind by means of broadcasting subsequent generations not only a body of knowledge, but also the imperatives of the future.

Theme 4. The emergence and establishment of science. Science in the Ancient World, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (2 hours)

The purpose of the lectures: historical and logical analysis of the stages of formation and development of science.

Plan:

1. Previous science of Ancient World.

2. Scientific knowledge in the Middle Ages.

3. Background of the experimental method.

Concepts: Previous science, syncretism, secularization, the relationship between science and religion, geocentricism, heliocentrism, the experimental method.

Previous-science of Ancient World was formed gradually accumulating knowledge in the natural sciences in the process of practical human activity. In the most organized societies, established by government and religious structures and mastered writing - Sumeria and Babylon, Egypt, India, China, Greece and Rome - the natural elements of knowledge are beginning to go beyond the practice and become self-sufficient subject of activity. This is exemplified in mathematics, medicine, astronomy and other systems of previous-science of Ancient World.

From the standpoint of science researchers, features of the eastern previous-science are the following:

- Syncretism (the science is inscribed in a practical and philosophical knowledge);

- Prescriptive nature of knowledge (the rules do not go into the theory and laws);

- The sacred character of knowledge, having the seal of secrecy.

Antique previous-science due to social and cultural features such as:

- Formation of the polis civilization;

- Democratic governance;

- Borrowing elements of Eastern cultures;

- The relationship with art and religion.

Scientific knowledge in the Middle Ages. In the history of philosophy and science of the Middle Ages can be divided into two constituent elements - Arab-Muslim and Western European.

The medieval culture of the Arab East (V-XVI centuries) is a culture of Arabia and the countries that underwent Arabization and in which there was an Arab nation - Iran, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and other North African countries. Later Arabs influenced upon the Volga Bulgaria and the countries of Central Asia.

Throughout the vast territory of the Caliphate, the powerful unifying force which was Islam, arise a new culture, which reached an all-time peak in the IX-XI centuries. Guided by calling the Quran to seek new knowledge and learning about nature for the sake of finding signs of the Creator, the Muslims created a society which in the Middle Ages was the scientific center of the world. In XII-XIII centuries the main work of the Arab mathematicians, opticians, physicians, musicologists were translated into Latin and became the basis of science and technology of the European Middle Ages.

In the era of the Middle Ages of Western European science became dependent on theology and its development slowed down considerably. Nature begins to be understood as created by God, and not as an independent beginning of the world, has its purpose and its law. Change the perception of nature, Christianity has changed the understanding of the human relationship to it. Of Natural interest in the study of nature is weakened because it does not allow the past to know the reasons and grounds of its own existence: they cannot be opened by the man on the ground with the help of reason. However, it was in the Middle Ages obtained their university development. Paradoxically, the synthesis of science and education begins in the era of the rule of religion. Medieval universities, which subsequently became the center of science, played an important role in the process of secularization, liberation from the cultural authority of the church, the separation of philosophy and theology, science and scholasticism.

Background of the experimental method. At the root of the formation of experimental science are Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) and Galileo Galilees (1564-1642). Copernicus concluded falsity geocentric Ptolemaic teachings. The main scientific work is dedicated to the treatment of Copernicus celestial bodies. It presents the theory of heliocentrism.

Go to the experimental study of nature and mathematical processing of experimental results enabled Galileo discovered the laws of motion of freely falling bodies. The principal difference between the new methods of investigating the nature of natural philosophy lay in the fact that it systematically tested the hypothesis experience. The experiment can be viewed as a question addressed to nature. To get him a definite answer, it is necessary to formulate the question to get it completely unambiguous and definite answer. To do so build an experiment to isolate much as possible from the effects of extraneous factors that interferes with the observation of the studied phenomenon in its "pure form." In turn, the hypothesis, which is a matter of nature, should allow empirical testing of its output of certain consequences. To this end, starting with Galileo became widely used math to quantify the results of the experiments.

In this way Galileo was able to disprove the former assumption made by Aristotle, that the path of a falling body is proportional to its speed. Therefore, Modern science has been characterized by confrontation between man and nature, active intervention in the natural objectivity and converting it according to their interests.

Theme 5. Modern European Science - the classic stage of the development of science

The purpose of the lecture: analysis of the classical stage of scientific development and the identification of elements of classical science.

Plan:

1. The formation of Science of Modern time.

2. The mechanical worldview of Isaac Newton.

3. German classical philosophy and classical science.

Basic concepts: the methodology of science, rationalism, empiricism, the mechanical picture of the world, classical science.

The formation of Science of Modern time. The development of philosophy of modern time begins with the question of the need to create an entirely new method of scientific knowledge. This method will be common to all scientists and able to provide reliable, evidence-based knowledge about the world. Influence of philosophy of science of modern times is determined, above all, the creation of two major philosophical and methodological concepts - rationalism and empiricism.

Rationalism is trend in modern philosophy, whose representatives argued the possibility of knowing reality from the pure principles of thinking, independent of experience. The founder of classical rationalism was Rene Descartes. Central to the methodology of Descartes takes the principle of evidence or intellectual intuition - the focus of classical rationalism. The only criterion of truth is the mind; true only that which is conceived mind quite clearly and distinctly; what is conceived clearly and distinctly, it is the true being. «Cogito ergo sum» - «I think, therefore I exist" - known formula of Descartes.

Empiricism is direction in the philosophy of the New Age, recognized as the foundation of knowledge - experience. The founder of empiricism was Francis Bacon. Bacon has developed a method of experimental induction, which became the core of a comprehensive program of scientific and technological power of humanity. Bacon was a real "prophet", a herald of modern scientific and technological civilization. His famous aphorism - "Knowledge - force."

The mechanical worldview of Isaac Newton. Isaac Newton in his fundamental work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" explained the mechanics of a system of laws, the law of universal gravitation, gave a general approach to the study of various phenomena on the basis of "the principles of the method." For Newton, it was very important to the legacy of his predecessors: "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." Among these giants in the first place should be called Galileo and Kepler.

The mechanistic world view was based on the following four principles.

1. The world is built on a common foundation - on the laws of Newtonian mechanics. All observed in the nature of the conversion and thermal phenomena at microphenomena boiled down to the mechanics of atoms and molecules, their movements, collisions, coupling, separation. It was believed that the discovery in the middle of the XIX century the law of conservation and transformation of energy and proved mechanical unity of the world.

2. In the mechanistic view of the world all the causal relationships unambiguous, prevails Laplace determinism. In the world there are accuracy and prejudging the future.

3. In the mechanistic view of the world there is no development - the whole world is the way it always was. The mechanistic view of the world is actually rejected a qualitative change, reducing everything to a purely quantitative changes.

4. The mechanistic picture based on the idea that the microcosm is similar to macrocosm. It was believed that the mechanics can explain the microcosm of the behavior of atoms and molecules.

At its core, this is a metaphysical view of the world, the diversity of the world was reduced to mechanics, quality development, as well as what is happening in the world that are strictly pre-defined and unambiguous.

In the history of science, classical mechanics has developed a new theoretical field of natural science, which became the foundation of the mechanistic view of the world. The mechanistic view of the world is the beginning, which is based on the following picture of the world, builds on the success of synergy, or the idea of ​​global evolutionism.

German classical philosophy and classical science. Immanuel Kant was the founder of German classical philosophy. In his famous works "The Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason" and "Critique of Judgment" have been set out the idea of a system of transcendental philosophy. Kant calls transcendental study of establishing the conditions under which it is possible to, or knowledge of the subjects regardless of experience, a priori. Solving this question, Kant makes the so-called Copernican revolution in the philosophy: a priori knowledge in general, and metaphysics in particular, are only possible because knowledge is not consistent with the objects and the objects themselves must conform to our cognitive ability.

The largest German thinkers after Kant sought to overcome its dualism (between the phenomenon and the "thing in itself") and the related agnostic (statement unknowable "things in them"). Itself the subject must be the product of its own active and spontaneous activity in and through which should be "put" the diversity of the material and the spiritual world - that's the basic idea of ​​post-Kantian dialectical idealism, first expressed by Fichte and Hegel fully developed.

Classical science is defined by a set of specific criteria:

- The scientific objective is recognized, ie, aimed at a specific object, apprehended through experience;

- Science is a seasoned character of knowledge. The main methods for the preparation and verification of acquired knowledge are used observation, measurement, and experiment. Therefore, the scientific experiment is always high demands of repeatability and reproducibility, anywhere, at any time without any changes;

- Classical science should be reliable and have a general relevance and universality of scientific knowledge, i.e., to be inter-subjective. Accordingly, the reliability of scientific statement is above, if subjective contained herein is less.

German classical philosophy formulated main theses of classical science, based on the epistemological principles of subject-object relations, onto-epistemological aspects of the science of knowledge, methodology of dialectical logic and epistemology of other moments, continued to further neo-Kantian schools.

Theme 6. Basic concepts and directions of the non-classical and post-nonclassical stage of history and philosophy of science (2 hours)

The purpose of the lecture: a critical analysis of the basic concepts of non-classical and post-nonclassical stage of scientific development.

Plan:

1. Epistemology of neo Kantianism: Baden and Marburg schools.

2. The positivist tradition in the philosophy of science.

3. Post-modernism and science.

Basic concepts: the epistemology of neo Kantianism, social and humanitarian knowledge, positivism, postmodernism.

Epistemology of neo Kantianism: Baden and Marburg schools. Neo Kantianism - direction of the German philosophy of the second half of XIX - early XX centuries. The central slogan of the neo-Kantians was "Back to Kant!" Was formulated by Otto Liebmann in "Kant and imitators" (1865) in a crisis of philosophy and fashion of materialism.

The neo-Kantianism distinguish Baden school (Freiburg, south-west), to focus on issues of values ​​and methodology of the humanities, and Marburg school, primarily engaged in logical and methodological issues of the natural sciences.

Baden school of neo-Kantianism is associated with the names of Wilhelm Windelband (1948-1915) and Rickert (1863-1939), which developed mainly issues related to the methodology of the humanities.

Ideas of Rickert and Windelband had a great influence on the formation of understanding sociology of Max Weber, on the development of contemporary American sociological thought on the general evolution of the methodology of the historical sciences.

The famous neo-Kantian Marburg school, which for decades has become a center of attraction for philosophers of different countries, created by Professor Hermann Cohen of the University of Marburg. The key thesis of the Marburg school was that all of the latest discoveries in science and the nature of modern research activities are irrefutable evidence of an active constructive role of the human mind in all spheres of life. Mind, which is endowed with a man does not reflect the world, but, on the contrary, creates it. It makes the connection and order in the hitherto incoherent and chaotic existence. Without his creative activity ordering the world turns into nothing, in a dark and silent oblivion. Reason is an inherent human light that, like a spotlight, illuminates things and processes in the world, giving them the logic and meaning. "Just thinking itself - wrote the founder of the Marburg school Hermann Cohen - can produce what may be referred to as being".

Historical and actual-value neo Kantianism heuristic is that it has made a significant contribution to modern epistemology, philosophy of science, methodology of socio-humanitarian knowledge, philosophy of language, myth, philosophy of culture.

The positivist tradition in the philosophy of science. Positivism was a philosophical direction of XIX-XX centuries, which emphasizing the reliability and value of positive scientific knowledge compared with other forms of spiritual activity, preferring the empirical methods of knowledge and points to the unreliability and the precariousness of the theoretical constructs. In its development, positivism took four steps, while maintaining some of the main features, which allow us to speak of it as a single direction of philosophical thought.

The founder of positivism was Auguste Comte (1798-1857), who formulated in their program "The course of positive philosophy" and "Spirit of positive philosophy" the basic provisions of positivism. The ideological credo of the first form of positivism is the progress and order.

These features are preserved in the second positivism, which has gained wide popularity in the scientific community in the late XIX - early XX centuries. The leaders of positivism in this period are the Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach and the Swiss philosopher Richard Avenarius, giving a new form of positivism, called "Machism" or "Empiriocriticism". The difference between these stages is in that the main task of philosophy is not to build a comprehensive system of scientific knowledge and the creation of the theory of scientific knowledge.

The third surge of interest in positivism manifested itself in the early XX century, when formed and quickly gained widespread popularity neo, or logical positivism. Its distinctive feature is that if the basic setting of positivist philosophy is widely used the apparatus of mathematical logic to the formulation and solution of philosophical problems. The most famous representatives of logical positivism: Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) - English philosopher, logician, mathematician, who believed that any philosophical problem must be approached from the standpoint of its analysis by means of mathematical logic and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) - author of the "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus" and others.

In place of the methodology of neo came a new direction in philosophy - Post Positivism. Post Positivism in the development of scientific knowledge of the methodology was presented by the works of philosophers such as Karl Popper (1902-1994), Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996), Imre Lakatos (1922-1974), and others. The variety of the philosophy of science concepts developed within Post Positivism caused a lot of new problems. This has resulted in the creation of awareness of the hopelessness of generally accepted theory that describes the structure and development of science. This circumstance has affected the completion of the next stage in the philosophy of positivism - Post Positivism.

Today Post Positivism lost much of its former importance. This is due to the fact that the establishment of generally accepted theory of the development of science was at a standstill. Have discussions containing within itself Post Positivism many conflicting points of view, it has once again shown the pluralistic nature of philosophical knowledge.

Post-modernism and science. Since 70-ies of XX century nonclassical science replaced postnonclassical science. It is a new type of knowledge, which is fundamentally different from the classical science and modern science. It is characterized by an increase in subjectivity, humanistic, self-criticism and the revision of his classic features, such as objectivity and truth.

In the classic style of scientific knowledge the attention of the researcher focuses on the characteristics of the object at the elimination of all that is related to the subject. The non-classical rationality takes into account the correlation of characteristics of the object of knowledge and means used by the subject. Postnonclassical type correlates knowledge about the object, not only the means but also with the target settings of the knowing subject.

Correlation of post-modernism and modern science was set Lyotard (1979). Today, it is obvious parallels exist between postnonclassical science with its uncertainty, incomplete, unverifiable and fundamental methodological principles of postmodernism. "Modern" world, including the social world organized categories of determinism, universality, certainty and direction of development. Postmodern social theory uses a category of uncertainty, nonlinear, multi-variant. It is reconciliation with essentially pluralistic nature of the world and its inevitable consequence - and the occasional ambivalence of human existence.

Synergy gives you a sort of «natural science» legitimizes the ideas of postmodernism. Their response promotes the establishment of a new world, a new methodology of knowledge, accelerating the collapse of the classic stage-linear models of history, the development of new approaches to it as the principle of openness, variability, alternative processes necessary to assume the "choice".

Theme 7. The structure and level of scientific knowledge. The methodology of science.

The purpose of the lecture: identifying the structure of scientific knowledge, the analysis of methodology of scientific knowledge.

Plan:

1. Scientific knowledge as a complex developing system.

2. A variety of methods of scientific research.

3. The modern methodology of scientific knowledge.

Basic concepts: classification of the sciences, philosophical methods, scientific methods, particular methods, techniques of scientific research.

Scientific knowledge as a developing system has complicated structure. The most important characteristic of scientific knowledge is its dynamics. This idea was expressed in the ancient philosophy, and Hegel formulated it in the position that "truth is a process" and not "ready result." The development of knowledge is a complex dialectical process that has certain qualitatively different stages. So, this process can regarded as a movement: the myth - previous-science - classical science - non-classical - postnonclassical.

 Science as a developing system includes a number of individual sciences, which in turn divide into many scientific disciplines. Identify structure of science in this aspect; it raises the problem of classification of sciences.

On the subject of knowledge and methods distinguish the science of nature - natural science (mechanic, physics, chemistry, geology, biology), the science of society - Social Studies (social and humanitarian science ) and science of cognition, thinking (logic, epistemology, cognitive science, and others.). A separate group is engineering science. A kind of science is modern mathematics. According to some scientists, it is not a science, but it is an essential element of their thinking. In turn, each group of science can be subjected to a more detailed articulation.

The structure of scientific knowledge can be represented as unity of two main levels - theoretical and empirical. These levels are closely linked. However, unacceptable absolute one of these levels to the detriment of the other, which is typical of empiricism and sсholastic theorizing.

In terms of the interaction of subject and object of scientific knowledge are the following components:

- The subject of science is a key element of it: some researchers, the scientific community, the research team, a society as a whole;

- The object (object, subject area) is what studies this science or scientific discipline. In other words, it's what the researchers focused thought, anything that can be described, perceived named, expressed in thinking;

- A system of methods and techniques specific to this science or scientific discipline, and due to the peculiarities of their subjects;

- A specific language - both natural and artificial (signs, symbols, mathematical equations, chemical formulas, etc.).

The variety of scientific research methods. One of the important features of scientific knowledge lies in its organization and use a variety of methods. Under the method is understood the set of methods, techniques, rules of cognitive, theoretical and practical, transforming human activities. These techniques, rules, ultimately, are not set arbitrarily, and are developed based on the laws themselves the objects of study.

Therefore, methods of knowledge are as diverse as reality itself. Research methods of knowledge and action are the task of a special discipline - methodology. With all the differences and variety of methods they can be divided into several main groups:

1. Everyone, philosophical methods, the scope of which the most widely. Among them is the dialectical method.

2. Scientific methods, which find application in all or nearly all the sciences. And originality, and unlike the general methods in that they are used at all, but only at certain stages of the process of cognition. For example, induction plays a leading role on the empirical and deduction is at a theoretical level of knowledge, analysis prevails at the initial stage of the investigation, and the synthesis is in the final, etc. In the scientific methods themselves are usually manifested and refraction requirements of general methods.

3. Particular or special methods specific to the individual sciences or practice areas. These are the methods of chemistry or physics, biology or mathematics, or metalworking techniques of construction.

4. Finally, a special group of methods of forming techniques, which are techniques and methods produced solutions to some special, private issues. Choosing the correct methodology is an essential condition for the success of the study.

Modern methodology of scientific knowledge. As a paradigmatic theory of modern science advocates synergy that studies the processes of self-organization and behavior of open no equilibrium systems. Finally, classical concepts of equilibrium, homogeneity and stability as the characteristic features of the world order are fading. The world appears as devoid of guarantees of stability, a new vision of the world in which a special role is attached to the element of chance, instability and irreversibility. The objects of research are complex systems, characterized by openness (ability of the system to the exchange of matter and energy with the environment), linearity (the presence in the many ways its evolution), coherence (coordination of interaction of elements) and self-organization (the presence of processes, self-structuring, self-regulation and self-replication).

However, synergistic vision of the world in modern science includes concepts such as chaos, bifurcation, dissipative structures, attractors, fractals. The new scientific paradigm is based on the approval of non-linearity as a fundamental concept, which manifests itself in the ideas of multi-variant and alternative paths of evolution, understanding the role of constructive instability and randomness. The basic ideas that underpin synergy, is a representation of the formation of the order through chaos, bifurcation changes, the irreversibility of time and the instability of complex systems.

Synergetic is an interdisciplinary area of ​​knowledge, which is aimed at identifying common patterns of self-organization processes. It should be noted that the principle of self-organization is seen as a universal law for the inanimate nature, biological and social processes. The phenomenon of self-organization is recognized as the original property of matter in motion that presents us with another source of non-classical assumption of science.

Synergetic gave the basis for an entirely new understanding of the relationship between scientific and non-scientific (religious, philosophical, mythological, everyday) thinking. Those notions of time and space, the role of randomness, of chaos characteristic of archaic thinking that previously were considered the classic science as unscientific, not related to the knowledge of reality, a kind of synergy obtained in rehabilitation. Prigogine and Stengers attempt to combine Western tradition, attaches paramount importance to experimentation and quantitative formulation and eastern tradition with its notions of changing spontaneously self-organizing world.

Theme 8. Science as a profession. Ideals and norms of science

The purpose of the lecture: revealing the features of science as a profession, the analysis of the ideals and standards of the scientific community, as well as state and prospects of development of science in Kazakhstan.

Plan:

1. Science as a profession and a particular type of activity.

2. The norms and values of the scientific community.

3. Priority areas of science in the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Basic concepts: a profession, calling, type of activity, norms, values, scientific ethos, priorities in the development of science.

Science as a profession and a particular type of activity. Science turns into a complex social institution at the end of the XIX century, when scientists begin to systematically receive a salary for their work. There is recognition of the economic significance of scientific activity. Sign in scientific discourse can now not everyone, for this subject must have a number of established social qualities (higher education, master's degree, publications, etc.).

 Science develops its own ethos - a set of rules which must be followed for each individual scientist, if he wants to remain a member of the scientific community.

Max Weber, in his article "Science as a Vocation" notes that "at present the ratio of the scientific production as a profession is primarily due to the fact that science has entered a phase of specialization, which did not know before ... a single individual can create in Science is something completed only if strict specialization".²

Scientists as a professional acts as a supplier of specialized knowledge and responsibility only for their reliability and validity. The scientist as a professional must be aware of the limits of their competence; moral, aesthetic, philosophical, religious preferences and assessment scientists believe it’s a personal matter and the science today is not included.

Transformed into a profession, science has become a technique of mastering the external environment of peace and life. It answers the question: what should be done to the result was the most effective, but questions about the meaning of human activity and the world at large does not consider.

The norms and values ​​of the scientific community. Ethos is a set of norms and values, reproducing from generation to generation and is mandatory for a man of science. Ethos outlines the range of possible acceptable behavior within science as a social institution. The scientific ethos associated with the organization of relations in the scientific community, it constitutes, integrates and (importantly) provides autonomy to the scientific community. Society can not and should not intervene in the case of scientists, but scientists can not and should not interfere in matters of morality, theology, politics, etc. Participants of the scientific community to draw conclusions about the adequacy of their research and results in relation to reality, not People from the outside. So the scientific ethos evolved since the first scientific communities (early XVII century).

For the first time the scientific ethos described by Robert Merton in "Normative structure of science" (1942). Based on the fact that the truth is the main value of science, he has identified the following standards:

- Universalism - the belief that the study science phenomenon occurs around the same and the truth of scientific judgment must be assessed regardless of gender, race, age, etc.;

- Collectivism - available scientific knowledge becomes a common heritage;

- Lack of interest - primary stimulus actions scientist is disinterested search for truth; recognition, rewards are consequences and not the goal;

- Organized skepticism - every scientist is responsible for what is done by him and his colleagues, and the fact that his assessment became public. You can not blindly trust authority predecessors. On the one hand the respect necessary, but a skeptical assessment must also take place.

The ethos is a mechanism to maintain standards. The scientific ethos is main positive sanction - peer recognition, and the negative - to ignore. According to Merton: if the researcher follows the rules he is a true scientist.

Priority areas of science in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Name of the (specialized areas) in the framework of research priorities for the development of science:

1. Rational use of natural resources, processing of raw materials and products

- Applied research:

• technologies and methods to fill the mineral resource base and water resources;

• mining technologies;

• technology of processing of raw materials and products;

• technology of new materials;

• problems of ecology and environmental management;

• theoretical bases of reception of multifunctional materials and coatings with a given set of properties.

- Fundamental research:

• theoretical bases of complex processing of hydrocarbon raw materials and environmental management;

• fundamental scientific research in the field of processing of raw materials and products;

• rational use of natural resources and ensuring the equilibrium state of the environment in Kazakhstan;

• fundamental problems of materials science.

2. Energy and Mechanical Engineering

- Applied research:

• renewable and alternative energy sources and energy use of industrial and household waste;

• heat and power generation and energy-efficient technologies;

• nuclear and hydrogen power;

• the impact of the energy sector on the environment;

• energy and automotive engineering;

• agricultural and food engineering;

• Petroleum Engineering;

• mining and metallurgical engineering;

• Mechanical engineering, automation and robotics.

- Fundamental research:

• fundamental scientific research in the field of energy and engineering.

3. Information and communication technologies

- Applied research:

• information technology;

• telecommunications systems and technologies;

• Intelligent Systems and Technology;

• software and hardware and systems;

• geographic information systems and technologies;

• intelligent robotic systems;

• advanced information technologies in scientific and educational processes.

- Fundamental research:

• fundamental scientific research in the field of information and telecommunication technologies:

• theoretical bases of the mathematical modeling of technological processes.

4. Life Sciences

- Applied research:

• New technologies to address the challenges of aging and prolong life;

• molecular, biochemical and cellular bases of living systems;

• scientific basis for improving the productivity and sustainability of plants and animals;

• new biological products for medicine, agriculture;

• Development of biomedical and genetic engineering.

- Fundamental research:

• fundamental research in chemistry and biology.

5. The intellectual potential of the country

- Fundamental research in the field of socio-economic sciences and humanities:

• study of the socio-economic conditions of development of high-tech competitive production (economy);

• research in the field of realization of social and economic policy of the state in modern conditions;

• topical issues of social and social sciences and humanities, and interdisciplinary studies.

- Fundamental research in the field of natural science:

• basic research in mathematics, mechanics, physics.

Theme 9. The scientific picture of the world

The purpose of the lecture: the definition of the basic characteristics of the modern scientific picture of the world.

Plan:

1. The concept of the scientific world.

2. Historical forms the scientific world.

3. The global evolution as a modern scientific picture of the world.

Basic concepts: scientific picture of the world, the global evolutionism, the anthropic principle in cosmology.

The scientific picture of the world - a system of ideas about the properties and laws of reality, built in the compilation and synthesis of scientific concepts and principles.

In the process of the development of science is a constant updating of knowledge, ideas and concepts, earlier representations are special cases of the new theories. The scientific picture of the world is not a dogma and absolute truth. At the same time, scientific understanding closer to the truth, because they are based on the totality of the facts proven and established causal relationships. As a result, scientific knowledge can draw correct conclusions and predictions about the properties of our world and contribute to the development of human civilization. Contradictions between scientific concepts overcome by revealing new facts and compare them with the predictions of different theories. This development is the essence of the scientific method.

The scientific picture of the world may be different from the religious views of the world, based on the authority of the prophets, religious traditions, sacred texts, etc. Therefore, religious views are more conservative in contrast to the scientific, evolving as a result of discovery of new facts. In turn, the religious concept of the universe is subject to change, to move closer to the scientific views of his time.

The scientific picture of the world is as different from the world, domestic or inherent artistic perception of the world. For example, the art forms of art images of the world based on its synthesis of the subjective (emotional perception) and objective (dispassionate) comprehension; while the science is focused exclusively on the objective perception and with the help critical thinking eliminates the subjectivity of the research results.

Historical types of scientific picture of the world. As the picture of the world is a systemic education, its change can not be reduced to any single, albeit very big and radical discovery. As a rule, we are talking about a series of interconnected discoveries in fundamental major sciences. These discoveries are almost always accompanied by a radical restructuring of the research method, as well as significant changes in the rules themselves and the ideals of scientific character.

Such clearly and unambiguously fixed by the radical changes of the scientific picture of the world of scientific revolutions in the history of science, there are three, they are usually taken to personalize the names of the three scientists who played the greatest role in the change occurs.

Aristotle's revolution (VI-IV centuries BC) - as a result of the scientific revolution occurred science itself, there was a separation of science from other forms of knowledge and the development of the world, created by certain rules and patterns of scientific knowledge. The most complete the revolution is reflected in the writings of Aristotle. He created a formal logic, ie, the doctrine of proof, the main tool of breeding and systematization of knowledge, developed a categorical conceptual apparatus. It adopted a kind of canon of scientific research organization (the background, problem statement, the arguments for and against, the rationale of the decision), differentiated knowledge itself, depart science of mathematics and metaphysics.

Newtonian scientific revolution (XVI-XVIII centuries), its starting point is considered to be the transition from the geocentric to the heliocentric model of the world, this change was due to a series of discoveries related with the names of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Descartes. Newton summed up their research and formulated the basic principles of the new scientific picture of the world in general. The dominant feature of classical science becomes a mechanic, all considerations based on the concept of value, excellence, goal-setting, were excluded from the scope of scientific inquiry. The cognitive activity implies a clear opposition of subject and object of research. The result of all these changes was the mechanistic scientific world on the basis of experimental mathematical science.

Einstein's revolution (XIX-XX centuries). It led to a series of discoveries (discovery of the complex structure of the atom, the phenomenon of radioactivity, the discrete nature of electromagnetic radiation, etc.). The result has been undermined, the most important prerequisite for a mechanistic view of the world - the belief that simple forces acting between the same objects can explain all natural phenomena. Later, under the new picture of the world revolution took place in private sciences: cosmology (the concept of the universe is not stationary), biology (development of genetics), etc. Thus, during the XX century, science has changed dramatically its appearance in all its directions.

Global evolution as a modern scientific picture of the world. The idea of ​​a global evolution as a modern scientific picture of the world has now become one of the forms of the principle of development. It addresses both the philosophical, and scientific knowledge, can not be reduced to the other. This means that the idea of ​​global evolutionism can be attributed to the level of knowledge called scientific picture of the world.

In connection with the interpretation of the essence of this idea arises the following fundamental question: whether there is a system-wide law of the evolutionary process that represents the concretization of the modern concept of development, and at the same time, applicable to all structural levels of natural reality? These laws, which manifest itself one way or another through the evolutionary laws of the individual structural levels, would assure thus the unity of the totality of evolutionary processes in the universe, in particular, the continuity of the process of progressive evolution.

The relevance of the question posed to modern science becomes evident, for example, in the analysis of the so-called anthropological or anthropic, the principle in cosmology that is now causing a major stir in philosophical discussions about the nature of science and the primary interest of many prominent scientists.

In discussing the problem of global evolutionism, we are still limited in all cases, the process is only in our universe, i.e., Metagalaxy. But the assumption of the existence of other universes or metagalaxies which strongly hit the road today in modern science leads to interesting opportunities for further generalization of the formulation of the problem of global evolutionism. If our universe is only one of an infinite number of closed quasi-evolving systems, may interact with each other, it is obvious we can not argue that the evolution of the Metagalaxy including the processes of emergence of cosmic civilizations is determined solely and entirely to her internal factors. It is increasingly likely that the need to take into account external factors and due to the interaction of our and other universes.

Theme 10. Scientific traditions and scientific revolution

The purpose of the lecture: identifying the relationship of scientific traditions and scientific revolutions and their impact on the change of types of scientific rationality.

Plan:

1. Scientific traditions and the emergence of new knowledge.

2. Problems of the typology of scientific revolutions.

3. Global Revolution and the change in the type of scientific rationality.

Basic concepts: scientific tradition, scientific revolution, scientific rationality.

Scientific traditions and the emergence of new knowledge. Tradition in science is a mechanism for the accumulation, preservation and transmission of scientific knowledge. Traditions constitute the basic skeleton of science as a social institution. With traditions in science is linked to certain established views knowledge of the world, worked out by generations of scientists and their attempts to put new scientific challenges. Traditions vary in their mode of existence - they are either expressed in the texts, monographs, textbooks, or do not have explicit verbal means of subsistence. Non-verbal (or implicit) knowledge is transmitted by the type specimens from teacher to student, from one generation to another ("implicit knowledge" Michael Polanyi).

Innovations in science is possible only within the framework of tradition (which confirms the idea of ​​Kuhn), but there is a variety of traditions, which suggests the interdisciplinary (cooperation traditions) as an important condition for obtaining new knowledge.

The restructuring of research strategies leads to scientific revolutions, during which there is a change in the picture of the world (with the ideals and norms of scientific research remain unchanged), or simultaneously with the change of image of the world are changing not only the ideals and standards of science but also its philosophical foundation.

Problems typology of scientific revolutions. There are four types of scientific revolutions on the following grounds:

- The emergence of new fundamental theoretical concepts;

- Development of new methods;

- Opening new research facilities;

- The formation of new methodological programs.

Also highlights the types of scientific revolutions on other grounds:

- Segment changing scientific knowledge: the discovery of new methods, new paradigms;

- The breadth of coverage: global revolution, private (in a separate science), complex (Darwin's theory, etc.).

The mechanism of the scientific revolution is described by Thomas Kuhn in "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions." The symptoms are:

- An expression of dissatisfaction with the existing paradigm;

- An attempt to "hard core" paradigmatic theory;

- The predominance of search experiments on the check;

- Increased interest in the foundations of science.

Global Revolution and the change in the type of scientific rationality. In the history and philosophy of science is divided into four global scientific revolutions:

- The establishment of classical science;

- Natural-scientific revolution;

- The formation of non-classical rationality;

- The formation of post-nonclassical rationality.

Revision of the picture of the world and the ideals of knowledge always begins with a critical review of their nature. Whereas previously they were perceived as an expression of the very essence of the reality studied and procedures of scientific knowledge, it is now realized their relative, transitory nature. This awareness implies asking questions about the relation picture of the world to study and understand the reality of the historicity of the ideals of knowledge. Posing such questions mean that a researcher from the field of special scientific problems beyond the scope of philosophical problems. Philosophical analysis is an essential point of criticism of the old foundations of scientific research.

In addition to the critical function of philosophy perform a constructive function, helping to develop new research base. Picture of the world, the ideals of explanation, justification and organization of knowledge can not be obtained purely inductively from the new empirical material. The material itself is organized and explained according to some methods of his vision, and the way to set the picture of the world of knowledge and ideals. New empirical material can detect a discrepancy between the old visions of a new reality, but by itself does not indicate how to rebuild this vision.

Rebuilding world view and ideals of knowledge requires specific ideas that allow you to rearrange the elements of the old concepts of reality and its knowledge of the procedures, eliminate some of them, insert new elements in order to allow existing paradoxes and assimilate the accumulated facts. Such ideas are formed in the philosophical analysis of the cognitive science of situations. They play the role of a very general heuristics, providing intensive development of studies.

Theme 11. The history and philosophy of natural sciences and engineering

The purpose of the lecture: analysis of the history and philosophy of natural sciences and engineering, as well as defining the role of mathematical methods in the formation of scientific knowledge.

Plan:

1. Natural history as a set of the natural sciences.

2. Mathematical methods and the formation of scientific knowledge.

3. Main problems of contemporary philosophy of technology.

Basic concepts: natural history, mathematical modeling, engineering sciences, philosophy of technology.

Natural history as a set of the natural sciences. Currently, under the natural sciences to understand the precise science, that is the nature of this knowledge, which is based on a scientific experiment, is characterized by the development of theoretical and mathematical form design.

For the development of the special sciences must a general knowledge of nature, comprehensive understanding of its objects and phenomena. For such common representation of each historical epoch produces the appropriate natural science picture of the world.

Modern science is a complex of the natural sciences. It includes such sciences as biology, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, ecology, and others. The natural sciences are distinguished the object of his study. Each natural science itself is a complex science, encountered at different stages of development of natural science. The current trend of development of science is such that simultaneously with the differentiation of scientific knowledge are the opposite processes - the connection of the individual areas of knowledge, creation of synthetic scientific disciplines. It is important that the combination of scientific disciplines takes place both within the various fields of natural science, as well as between them.

In the natural sciences distinguish between basic and applied science. Basic sciences - physics, chemistry, astronomy - study the basic structure of the world, and applications involved in the use of the results of fundamental research to address both the cognitive and social and practical problems.

Mathematical methods and the formation of scientific knowledge. Classical science has grown on the use of experimental and mathematical methods. The successful use of mathematics to express the natural connections and relations of all natural objects contributed to the belief that scientific (truth, validity) knowledge determined by its mathematization.

"The book of nature is written in the language of mathematics" - claimed by Galileo.

"Every so much knowledge of the truth, as there is mathematics", - says Kant.

Logical harmony strictly deductive character builds universal validity of the conclusions of mathematics created her fame sample of scientific knowledge.

 However, the main advantage of mathematics, so attractive to natural scientists, is that it can serve as a source of models, algorithmic schemes for links, relationships, and processes that are the subject of science.

From the middle of the XX century in various fields of human activity have been widely used mathematical methods and computers. Having such new subjects as "mathematical economics", "mathematical chemistry," "computational linguistics", etc., that studying mathematical models of corresponding objects and phenomena, as well as the research methods of these models.

Mathematical model is an approximate description of a class of phenomena or objects of the real world in the language of mathematics. The main objective of the simulation - to explore these objects and predict the results of future observations. However, modeling is also a method of learning about the world, enabling them to manage.

Mathematical modeling, and associated computer experiment, indispensable in cases where the natural experiment is impossible or difficult for one reason or another. For example, you can not put a full-scale experiment in history to see "what would happen if ..." Unable to verify the correctness of a particular cosmological theory. In principle it is possible, but it is hardly reasonable to put the experiment on the spread of a disease, such as plague or a nuclear explosion carried out to study its effects. However, it can be made on the computer, building a pre-mathematical models of the phenomena studied.

The main problems of contemporary philosophy of technology. Philosophy of Technology - direction of modern philosophy, designed to study the most general laws of development of technology, engineering and technical activities, as well as their place in human culture and contemporary society. Philosophy of technology explores, firstly, the phenomenon of the technique in general, and secondly, not only its immanent development, but also in the development of society as a whole, and finally, thirdly, takes into account a broad historical perspective.

Philosophy of technology raises ethical issues by analyzing the relationship technology, society and nature. Splash of philosophy of technology is caused by the ambiguity of scientific knowledge and technological progress. On the one hand, the modern solution of social and economic problems can only be based on science and technology. On the other hand, it is becoming increasingly apparent limits of economic and technological growth. The belief in the endless technological progress comes up against the limited understanding of natural and social resources. Problems of ethics are perhaps most acute in the philosophy of technology. Several authors have used such an expression as "demonic technology." The technique not only concluded the limitless possibilities of useful but also dangerous - unpredictable disastrous consequences for human use of technology, society, nature. This is the danger of the man as a machine, the impoverishment of his thinking, "mechanization" of the soul; winning material over the spiritual; finally, the obvious and catastrophic destruction of nature.

Thus, the philosophy of technology is the scientific study of philosophy, in the center - a comprehensive philosophical and methodological analysis and social and cultural technology as a complex, holistic, dynamic and controversial phenomenon of modern civilization.

Make a clear distinction between the natural, social and technical sciences at the present level of development can not be because there is a whole range of disciplines that occupy an intermediate position or is complex.

Thus, modern science is developing an extensive range of sciences of nature, characterized by both the ongoing process of differentiation of scientific disciplines and the creation of synthetic and focused on the integration of scientific knowledge.

Theme 12. The history and philosophy of social sciences and humanities

The purpose of the lecture: analysis of the history and philosophy of the social sciences and humanities, as well as definition of their civilization values.

Plan:

1. Philosophy as an integrated form of scientific knowledge.

2. Formation of the scientific disciplines of social and humanitarian cycle.

3. The social and cultural conditioning of scientific knowledge.

Basic concepts: knowledge of human, axiology, daily life, social and cultural phenomenon.

Philosophy as an integrated form of scientific knowledge. Philosophy is an integral form of scientific knowledge, including knowledge about the society, culture, history, science of man. Social philosophy, philosophy of culture, history, anthropology, philosophy and methodology are the updating of the assumptions of social sciences and humanities. Development of methodology of social and humanitarian knowledge depends on the type of scientific rationality. So within the framework of classical science formed the logical-epistemological approach (rationalist) to the study of social phenomena and cultural phenomena, including humans. In XX century the methodology varies social and humanitarian knowledge. In the first place there is not knowledge based social processes and human nature, and the disclosure of man's relationship to the world (natural and artificial), and to himself. So gradually within the paradigm of non-classical science formed the philosophical-anthropological approach, giving emphasis to the problems of ontology, anthropology and axiology.

If people in the dissemination of the traditions, society, culture exist in certain dependence on absolute principles - spirit, mind, nature, matter, from the standpoint of anthropologism people considered in the context of the inherent human existence spheres and factors. From the point of view of the rationalist tradition, the world develops according to its own laws, in terms of philosophical anthropology - person forms his existence, his typology and essential form. Subject rationalist philosophy is being, consciousness, cognition, communication. The subject of philosophical anthropology is the meaning of life, understanding, and communication. The social philosophy of great attention is paid to the phenomenon of daily life. Daily life is a life of well-known people in habitual situations, which is characterized by clearness of what is happening, orderly, pragmatic knowledge. Culture, society and people are a holistic and multifaceted. The fundamental principles of the study of the phenomena of culture, society, man are a microanalysis and multidimensionality. Any knowledge of the person, every life situation is a manifestation of a unified whole. Many disparate scientific data do not cancel the unity of man and manifest it in a special way. It is necessary to broaden the dialogue of all contexts of life in which man is involved today, ie to create a special dialog space social sciences and humanities to harmonize goals, objectives, methods and different studies.

In the methodology of the XXI century forms a new post anthropology paradigm based on a person's ability to influence the surrounding reality.

Formation of scientific disciplines of social and humanitarian cycle. The social and humanitarian knowledge is concentrated in the review of relations within the system "man-society", where a person is being studied as a social-cultural phenomenon in the context of culture. The subject of social and humanitarian knowledge is not just a man, and a bunch of "man and the world", "man and society."

For social sciences cycle accepted to: economics, politics and law, psychology and social psychology, sociology, anthropology, ethnography; humanities - history, linguistics, art history, cultural studies, religious studies.

The social and humanitarian knowledge evolved over the centuries, starting with the thinking of philosophers of antiquity. The modern system of social sciences and humanities was formed in the late XIX - early XX centuries. It positions itself as a "comprehensive knowledge of human", covers all major areas of the universe: nature, society and the human spirit. Science got us accustomed to the features of universality, specialization and interdisciplinary connections. In contrast to the concrete philosophy of sciences aims to explore the historical process in general.

Importantly, the science of social and humanities are not impenetrable boundaries. For example, the economic analysis of society presupposes knowledge of the political, cultural, legal and other aspects of the phenomenon under study.

The number and content of the discipline depends on the development of society and its needs, the level of culture and the degree of development of the science and education system of a particular society.

The social-cultural conditioning of scientific knowledge. In modern science, axiological, value aspects forming and functioning of the scientific method is fundamental scientific knowledge. The debate about whether there can be value-free science, continue and is represented by two main approaches: 1) science should be value neutral, it was recognized classical science, but today more and more perceived as simplistic and inaccurate; 2) values ​​are a prerequisite for the formation and growth of scientific knowledge, but need to find rational forms, which record their presence and influence on the knowledge and activity, as well as generally understood their roles and features in each of the sciences. The second approach is based on the recognition that the values ​​expressed in the science of its social-cultural conditionality as an essential characteristic becomes a defining philosophy and methodology of science, especially of social sciences and the humanities.

Social conditionality - Science in society acquires the status of a social institution; Science is also social-oriented (the status of scientific worker training system).

Cultural conditionality is inconceivable without science education system, economic activities, social and political forecasting, development of the fundamental problems of philosophy; Science is part of culture.

Theme 13. Philosophical problems of modern global civilization

The purpose of the lecture: the definition of the essence of the modern global civilization and analysis of Kazakhstan's civilization identity.

Plan:

1. The historical concept of civilization and their relationship with science.

2. The modern global civilization and its specificity.

3. Formation of the Kazakh civilization identity.

Basic concepts: civilization, globalization, types of civilization, civilization identity.

The historical concepts of civilization and their relationship with science. In academia the concept of "civilization" has been increasingly used in the formulation of the common cultural and historical principles and laws of the dispensation and the development of complex human societies. It has become crucial in a number of influential general historical, sociological, cultural concepts based on an integrated approach to the study of the dynamics of society and its changes.

Type of civilization is the methodological concept used for the largest division of the cultural and historical development of mankind, allowing designate specific features characteristic of many societies. The basis of the typology on four main criteria:

1) Common basic features of the spiritual life;

2) Commonality and interdependence of historical and political destiny and economic development;

3) The intertwining of cultures;

4) The existence of common interests and common objectives in terms of development prospects.

Technological civilization is a historical milestone in the development of civilization, a special type of civilization development, which was formed in Europe in the XV-XVII centuries.

The main role in this type of culture, civilization takes a scientific rationality emphasizes the special value of reason and based on it the progress of science and technology.

Character traits:

1) Rapid change in technology and technology thanks to the systematic use in the production of scientific knowledge;

2) as a result of the fusion of science and production has occurred, and the scientific and technological revolution has significantly changed the relationship between man and nature, man's place in the production system;

3) Accelerating the update of the artificially created human subject protection, this directly flows vital functions. This is accompanied by the increasing dynamics of social ties, their relatively rapid transformation. Sometimes, for one or two generations, there is a lifestyle change and the formation of a new type of personality. On the basis of technological civilization emerged two types of society - industrial society and postindustrial society.

The modern global civilization and it’s specificity. The current state of development of civilization has led to the formation of a global civilization.

Global civilization is the current stage of development of civilization, characterized by increasing the integrity of the international community, the emergence of a single planetary civilization. Globalization is associated primarily with the internationalization of all social activity on Earth. This internationalization means that in the modern era all humanity enters into a unified system of social-economic, political, cultural and other ties and relations.

The increasing intensity of global linkages contribute to the spread across the planet as forms of social, economic and cultural life, knowledge and values ​​that are perceived as the best and most effective to meet personal and social needs. In other words, there is an increasing unification of the social and cultural life of various countries and regions of the globe. The basis of this unification is to create a planetary system of social division of labor, political institutions, information, communication, transport, etc. A specific instrument of social and cultural interaction is a dialogue between civilizations.

In cultural studies documented some of the most general principles of dialogue among civilizations:

1) Absorption of progressive experience, usually takes place while maintaining inter-civilization characteristics of each community, culture and mentality of the people;

2) Each community takes from the experience of other civilizations, only those forms that it is able to learn as part of their cultural opportunities;

3) Elements of a civilization, transferred to another ground, get a new look, a new quality;

4) As a result of the modern global civilization dialogue acquires not only the shape of an integrated system, but also internally diverse, pluralistic nature. In this civilization growing homogeneity of social, economic and political forms is combined with cultural diversity.

Formation of the Kazakh civilization identity. Each national culture in this cultural diversity is presented as equitable, capable to communication and "desirable" for the communication. Globalization, on the one hand, the threat of cultural identity, on the other, creates a real opportunity for dialogue, cultural identities. Cultural globalization set itself the problem of finding the person of their cultural identity. There are different versions of identicalness: ethnic identity, civil identity, national identity, religious identity. The essence of the cultural identity lies in the fact that it brings together all of these modification transformation of identity, as the basis for projections fundamental human cultural communication space.

In today's globalization emerges and strengthens the position of that preservation of cultural, identity as the highest expression of civilization. The development of modern Kazakhstan impossible without studying the history and culture of the people, without an understanding of the origins of ethnic development, the priority of spiritual and moral values ​​of Kazakh culture. In the spiritual history of the past of the Kazakh people laid deep roots of national identity which is the basis of values ​​and meaning of the historical process and the specific ethnical-social reality. Spiritual values ​​accumulated over the long history of development of the Kazakh culture should form the historical and cultural foundations of modern culture. The nomadic way of life left its mark and determines the unique culture of the people, its mentality, customs and traditions. Spiritual world of Kazakh centuries absorbs many cultural influences by melting and assimilating them into their ancestral traditions of the steppe. These traditions are so strong that political disaster and war, great cultural expansion neighbors (China, Russia), Arab and Mongol influence or Islamization could not change them fundamentally. The reason for the vitality and viability was, apparently, is that the method of management and type of civilization remained virtually unchanged for centuries. Studying history, unwittingly come to believe how amazingly strong was the desire of our ancestors to preserve their traditions, customs, beliefs. Nomads jealously guarded its identity not let into your mindset influence usages Chinese or Mongolian. Spiritual and moral values ​​of Kazakh people reflect such virtues as hospitality, tolerance, generosity, human interaction, etc. This is the core which is embedded in the genetic memory of the Kazakhs and transmitted from generation to generation.