17.Typology of intonation in English and Ukrainian.

Intonation in both contrasted languages is a linguistically relevant and complex combination of speech melody, sentence stress, tempo, pausation, voice timber.

The main functions of intonation in the contrasted languages are as follows:

1.sentence forming and sentence delimiting;

2.distinctive;

3. attitudinal.

These three main functions of intonation are equally pertained to English, Ukrainian and other languages.

The following tones can be distinguished in the contrasted languages:

1.The Falling Tones;

2. The Rising Tones;

3. The level tones.

I. The Falling Tones are used to convey finality and completeness of sense groups/units both in English and Ukrainian: 1.In simple affirmative or negative utterances of different structural forms: Certainly.IINot at all.II Ні. ІІ Авжеж.ІІ

2. In simple extended and unextended affirmative and negative utterances like: We have read the novel.Ми читали цей роман.

3.In short unextended exclamations and exclamatory utterances like Lovelly!II Що за гарна пора!ІІ

4. In exclamations: So be it!II Хай завжди буде весна!ІІ

5.In concluding parts of alternative questions:Shall I go or stay?;Ти живеш в Києві чи у Львові?

6.In special questions:What has he done? Хто відсутній?

7.In greeting : Good morning!Рада тебе бачити!

8. To express order or command: Attantion!Увага!

II. The Rising Tones:

1. In general questions: Yes? Справді?

2.In requests: Will you tell me the time?Котра там година?

3. In counting or enumerating : English, French, German, Italian and many other languages.

4. To express doubt, uncertainty, wish, resistance, suggestion: I wish he were here.якби він був тут.

5.In disjunctive questions: He has come, hasn’t he?

6. In imperative sentences: Come in! Заходьте!

7. In exclamatory sentences expressing parting: Good-buy! До побачення!

ІІІ. . The level tones are common in the contrasted languages. In most cases we use the level tones to mark the author’s words, to mark parentheses, to point out specifying parts.

18. Typology of idiomatic and set- expressions.

The idiomatic and set-expressions, lexically and often structurally stable units of lexicon present a universal phenomenon. Structurally, they may be in all languages:

1. Sense idioms (time and tide wait for no man, на козаку нема знаку);

2. Word-group idioms (to be or not to be, бути чи не бути);

3. Metaphorically generalized proper names ( sometimes geographical names) as Jack

Ketch ( hangman), Tom Tailor (tailor), Tom Thumb (A small man). Similarly in Ukrainian: язиката Хвеська, сердешна Оксана and many others. Their transparent metaphorical meaning is indisputable in the contrasted languages.

Presumably common in all languages are also the paradigmatic classes of idioms which may be:

• substantival (the Trojan horse, троянський кінь);

• verbal (to have one’s heart in one’s mouth, to take the bull by horns;брати бика за рога, пекти раків),

• adverbial (by and again, tit for tat; по всіх усюдах, тут і там,скрізь і всюди).

Idiomatic expressions in Eng. and Ukr. And in all other languages may perform common functions in the sentence, namely, that of

1. the subject ( Hobson’s choice is a idiom);

2. the predicate/predicative ( That was a Hobson’s choice for him );

3. the object ( He translated correctly the idiom ‘Hobson’s choice’ into Ukr.);

4. the adverbial modifier ( He will do it by hook or by crook). Similarly in Ukr.

National idioms present a separate universal feature pertained to all languages. These idioms are formed on the basis of the component parts/images characteristic of the definite national community and its language. Thus, only in Eng. exist such idioms as to dine with Duke Humphry, to cut off with a shilling; and only in Ukr. such idioms as утерти носа,впіймати облизня, передати куті меду.

Typologically relevant is also the identification of the group of regular international idioms, which are common, however, only in some groups of geographically closer languages. Nevertheless there scarcely exist universal idioms of the same lexical meaning and the same component structure. This is the result of the historical development of languages which were exerted in different geographical/racial areas to different cultural, religious and other influences. Thus all European nations and their languages have been influenced by Greek and Roman cultures and by Christianity. As a result, there are many not only words but idioms borrowed from Greek and Latin.(Pandora’s box).

Besides idiomatic expressions exist in all languages either as

1) absolute equivalent(having all components the same: the heel of Achilles- ахіллесова п’ята);

2) near equivalent ( when having in some languages one or more components missing or different as in other languages: as pale as paper – білий як стіна);

3) constitute genuine and approximate idiomatic analogies. The latter have in Eng. and Ukr. similar meaning but different componental structures: make haste slowly-тихіше їдеш,далі будеш.