Middle english literature

In the history of England the medieval period is divided into the Early Middle Ages (1066-1300) and the Late Middle Ages (1300-1485).

The Middle Ages in England begin with the Norman Conquest. The coronation of William the Conqueror in 1066 marked the start of a new age for England. The new king crushed the remaining Anglo-Saxon resistance and organized the country according to the feudal system. It meant that all land belonged to the king, but he gave it to his nobles in return for duty or service for a certain period each year. The nobles, in turn, gave part of their lands to knights or other freemen, who contributed military service or rent. The last link in the chain were the serfs who worked on the land but were not free to leave it. Thus at the top of the social scale of the medieval English society were the aristocracy who, however, decreased in number through war. Next in line were the knights, who during this period were transformed from warriors into more peaceful landowners. Below these were the urban freemen, often belonging to various town craft guilds. During the Middle Ages, power gradually moved away from the nobility to the middle classes: merchants, lawyers, cloth manufacturers and gentlemen farmers. This class was literate, and often questioned the way in which institutions were run, criticizing both the church and the feudal system. This growing power in Parliament was a sign that the monarchy was increasingly forced to rely on the support of the middle classes to finance wars and other policies.

During the Middle Ages one of the most important factors was the relationship between England and France. By marriage, war or inheritance the kings of England, at one time or another, could also claim possession of vast areas of France. In particular, in the reign of Henry II (1154-1189) this empire extended from the southern border of Scotland to the south of France, the king of England controlling a greater area than the king of France.

The fourteenth century was a difficult period in the English history because of both the Black Death (bubonic plague) and a long series of wars, which had disastrous effects on the country’s economy and led to the formation of armed gangs which terrorized the countryside and destabilized the political situation; kings were often deposed or murdered. In the result of the Hundred Years War against France (1337-1453) England lost all its possessions in France apart from the port of Calais. The plague which broke out in 1348-9 killed about one third of the whole population and it was followed by other minor epidemics. Over the fourteenth century the population fell from 4 million to less than 2 million. This decrease in population, however, favoured the poorer labourers: the shortage of manpower meant that they could sell their services at a higher price. The larger landowners were eventually forced to lease their land for longer and longer terms. The latter was a decisive factor in the breakdown of the feudal system. By the end of the Middle Ages period the great landlords had almost disappeared and a new class, the “yeomen”, or smaller farmers, had become the backbone of English society.

A long struggle for power culminated in the so-called Wars of Roses. The nobility were divided between those who supported the claim to the throne of the Duke of York (their symbol was a white rose) and the supporters of the ruling king Henry VI of the House of Lancaster (their symbol was a red rose). The wars ended in the battle of Bosworth Field when Richard III was defeated by Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond, who was immediately crowned King Henry VII. The Wars of the Roses led to the near-destruction of the ruling classes and enabled the Tudors to lay the foundations of a new nation.

Distinctive features if Medieval literature. Little has been preserved of literature in English from the first century after the Norman Conquest. It is certain that there was great interaction between English, French (the language of the Norman ruling classes) and Latin (the universal language of education and the Church), and a wide range of classical literature and literary theory became available to the English. Another emerging genre was that of the metrical romance. The romance used classical or Arthurian sources in a poetic narrative that replaced the heroic epics of feudal society with a chivalrous tale of knightly valour. In the romance, complex themes of love, loyalty, and personal integrity were united with a quest for spiritual truth. An example is Layamon’s Brut, which deals with the legendary story of King Arthur, believed to be descended from Brutus (who was also supposed to have founded Britain). These romances, forerunners of the novel, show a shift in values from the Old English epics, such as Beowulf. Such romances appeared under the influence of the code of chivalry. Chivalry was a set of values which the perfect knight was supposed to respect. It included such ideas as: the knight would defend any “damsel in distress” (any woman in a difficult situation), he would avenge any insults to his good name and honour, and would serve God and the king. The cult of “courtly love”, chaste and near-fanatical service to one’s lady, was also an important influence

The code of chivalry meant that there was less emphasis on mere bravery in battle. Writers and philosophers began to explore the nature of love, religious and profane. Poetic forms from France, such as the “carole” (a dance-song), the fabliau and the allegorical poem, such as the Romance of the Rose, which Chaucer translated, made their appearance.

Like the romance, the courtly love lyric, also combined elements from popular oral traditions with those of more scholarly or refined literature. The idealized lady and languishing suitor of the love lyric of the poets of southern and northern France were imitated and reinterpreted.

Another important development was the rise of mystery and morality plays. They originated as didactic spectacles designed to instruct the illiterate in religious matters, and their content encompassed the whole of the Bible, from Genesis to the Day of Judgment. However, they soon assumed an independent existence, and became a source of drama in the Renaissance period.