Literature of civil war and restoration

The Tudor monarchs upheld in the country “tyranny by consent”. The role of Parliament during the Tudor period was quite limited: the Tudor monarchs did not hold it in high esteem and seldom convened it. Henry VII used Parliament only for introducing new laws; Henry VIII, to raise money for his struggle with Rome, to make laws for the Church reformation. In 45 years of Elizabeth’s reign she only let Parliament meet 14 times. The Tudors did not dissolve Parliament altogether only because they needed the support of the merchants and landowners, whose representatives were Members of Parliament (MPs).But by using Parliament to support their policy the Tudors actually increased its authority. There was a shift of power to the House of Commons because it was richer and more influential, although it was still not really representative.

The Stuart monarchs succeeded the Tudors in 1603, after Queen Elizabeth’s death. The first to access to the throne was James I, Elizabeth’s Scottish cousin. He committed numerous errors which irritated Parliament needlessly. Charles I on his succession in 1625 quarrelled with Parliament even more bitterly than his father had done. Many times he dissolved Parliament but had to recall it again because he needed money. In 1628 he was forced to sign the Petition of Rights which would enable Parliament to control the national budget and the law. Charles then tries to prevent its use by dissolving Parliament. Between 1629 and 1640 he successfully ruled the country without Parliament. It seemed that Parliament would never meet again. But in 1641 Ireland exploded in rebellion again the Protestant English settlers. The question rose as to who would lead the army to defeat the rebels. Many MPs were afraid that Charles would use the army to dissolve Parliament again. Besides they knew about his sympathy with the Catholics as his wife was one of them. London closed its gates against the king and Charles moved to Nottingham where he gathered an army to defeat the rebellious Parliament. The Civil War began.

Only 10% of the population was directly involved, although the consequences made themselves felt in all walks of life. The Royalists (Cavaliers, the elegant supporters of the Monarchy) controlled the north and the west. The Republicans (Roundheads, the short-haired Puritan and Parliamentary forces) controlled the east and south-east, including London. In 1645 the Royalist army was finally defeated. Oliver Cromwell, who was one of the commanders of the Republican Army, captured the king. Charles I was accused of treason for making war against his kingdom and Parliament. On January 21, 1649, he was executed.

From 1649 till 1660 Britain was a Puritan Republic. The Puritans believed that any kind of outward religious manifestation was blasphemous. They objected to the architecture of the great cathedrals, the decoration of altars, as well as practices which they considered corrupt, such as making the sign of cross at baptisms. They also objected to the rule by bishops, to celebration of Christmas or Easter, and to games on Sunday.

Cromwell set up a military government, which was declared Commonwealth and later, in 1653, a Protectorate. Cromwell’s government were very severe. They abolished the House of Lords and the Anglican Church. As Scots tried to bring Charles II (son of Charles I) to the throne, Scotland was brought under the domination of Cromwell. There were brutal massacres in Ireland. Because of the disagreement with the Army, Parliament was dissolved in 1653. From then on Cromwell ruled as a dictator, using the army to maintain law and order and enforcing the strict observance of Puritan beliefs. When Cromwell died in 1658 he was succeeded by his son Richard. But Richard could control neither the army, nor Parliament. In 1660 Charles II, who had escaped to France, was recalled from his exile and monarchy was restored. The period between 1660 and 1702 is known in English history as Restoration.

Charles II displayed a diplomatic talent, making peace with his father’s enemies and punishing only those who were responsible for his execution. Supporters of Parliament in the Civil War were allowed to hold positions of responsibility, although Parliament itself did not maintain its strength. The new king also tried to heal the rifts between the various religious factions, and to allow both Catholic and Puritan minorities to exercise their faith freely. Parliament, strongly Anglican, did not agree to the latter and passed a law in 1673 which prevented Catholics from occupying public posts.

Charles II died in 1685 leaving no heirs and his brother James II, a Catholic, succeeded on the throne and tried to restore the Catholic Church and remove the laws preventing Catholics from holding power. The situation came to a head in 1688 when James’s son was born. William of Orange, a Protestant married to James’s daughter, Mary, was invited to invade England in the so-called Glorious Revolution. Parliament had became more powerful than the king and this new limitation of the powers of the monarchy was sanctioned with the Bill of Rights in 1689, which laid down that the monarch could not raise taxes, or maintain an army without the consent of Parliament, or persecute MPs for their political beliefs. After that a monarch hardly had any authority independent of Parliament. Monarchy stopped to be absolute and became parliamentary.

The final seal on the struggles between Catholics and Protestants was the Act of Settlement of 1701, which ensured that only Protestants could inherit the crown, a law which is still in force today. William died in 1702 and the crown passed to Mary’s sister, Anne, the last of the Stuart dynasty.

With the return of the monarchy there were clear signs that the nation wanted to break with the past and forget religious divisions for the sake of greater freedom and peace. This led to immediate reopening of theatres, which had been closed by the Puritans in 1642, and in general to a more pleasure-seeking and licentious society. The influence of the court in this matter was particularly strong: vice and immorality became fashionable. This is reflected in the literature of the time. Social divisions between the rich and the poor increased, although educational standards were continually improving. Censorship was abolished in 1692.

Restoration poetry. During the reign of Charles I appeared the “Cavalier Poets”, a small group of poets associated with the Royalist cause in one way or another, in contrast to the Metaphysical poets who were mostly attracted to the rational and intellectual atmosphere of Puritanism. They wrote on classical themes in classical metres and their poetry retains a sophisticated charm. The best known of them are Robert Herrick (1591-1674), Sir John Suckling (1609-1642) and Richard Lovelace (1618-1657). However, the distinction between Cavaliers and Metaphysicals is essentially an artificial one and several poets, in particular Andrew Marvell (1621-1678), combine features of both schools.

Although the genius of John Milton dominated the age, poetry was in decline during the Restoration (Milton was published after 1660, but his works are certainly Puritan in conception). Nevertheless satirical poetry became a popular mode. Samuel Butler (1612-1680) produced Hudibras, a satire of figures, attitudes and behaviour current during the Civil War and Commonwealth. Jonathan Swift was an admirer of Butler’s forceful satire. John Dryden (1631-1700), apart from his contribution to drama and criticism, also wrote elegant verse and satirical poems.

Restoration prose. The changes in the social and intellectual climate that resulted in the flowering of Metaphysical poetry also had a similar influence on the prose in the Stuart period, which became more introspective and analytical. The main prose writers of the period are Robert Burton (1577-1640), whose Anatomy of Melancholy was to have a profound impact on future generations, Sir Thomas Brown, the author of the contemplative religious work Religio Medici, and Isaac Walton, whose Compleat Angler is a compendium of anecdotes and meditations on country life.

The restoration of monarchy led many to a painful revaluation of the political hopes bred during two decades of civil war and republican government. The defeated republicans recorded their own or others’ experience for what they called “good old cause”. Richard Baxter, a non-conformist cleric, published on religious issues. His best work is Religuae Baxtorianae (1696), an autobiography that is also an eloquent defence of the Puritan impulse. An important writer embodying the true spirit of Puritanism was John Bunyard (1628-1688). His The Pilgrim’s Progress, a forceful allegory of Man’s quest for salvation, is one of the greatest works of religious literature of all time. Though more famous as a poet, John Milton also excelled in the production of prose pamphlets in defence of religious and civil liberties.

After the Restoration, the scientific revolution contributed to the forging of a new, concise prose style, which is seen both in the works of rationalist philosophers John Lock (1632-1704) and Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and in a new genre: a diary. The diary gives intriguing insights in the daily life of the time in the hands of its two greatest exponents: John Evelyn (1620-1706) and Samuel Pepys (1633-1703), whose diaries were published in the nineteenth century. John Dryden (1631-1700) towers above his contemporaries in the field if criticism.

Restoration drama. The theatres were closed between 1642 and 1660, and drama really began to flourish again after the Restoration. New habits and values had evolved reflecting the changing social and intellectual climate of the times. The major achievement of the age was the so-called comedy of manners, or Restoration comedy. The cynical nature of this type of comedy certainly resulted from the cynical nature of Charles II’s court and the changing composition of the theatre-going public. In Shakespeare’s time the common people had stood around the stage to watch the same play as the middle class or aristocracy seated above. By the time of the Restoration, the theatre had become an entertainment only for the elite, and this complacent audience had a deleterious effect on the kind of drama written. Dr. Johnson wrote of these wits in 1747: ”Themselves they studied, as they felt they writ; / Intrigue was plot, obscenity was wit. / Vice always found a sympathetic friend; / They pleased their age, and did not aim to mend”.

The comedies were normally set in London and seen from the point of view of the hero, a courtly wit. Marriage was always treated as a joke, and country people were often mocked. The main drawback of the comedy of manners is the limited range of the social classes portrayed and the immaturity of the ideas expressed. The plays, however, have survived due to their brilliant dialogue and clever manipulation of the storyline. One of the brightest representatives of the genre is William Congreve (1670-1729), the author of the plays The Old Bachelor, The Double Dealer, Love for Love, The Morning Bride (his greatest popular success). At present the masterpiece of Restoration comedy is considered to be his The Way of the World (1700). In fact, in many ways this comedy represents a break with the tradition. The play certainly displays the wit and satire of the earlier comedies and treats more serious problems under a brilliant surface of manners. However, in its delicacy and generosity of spirit it also anticipates a new sensibility.