THE INFINITIVE
ITS NOMINAL AND VERBAL FEATURES
The nominal features of the infinitive are displayed in its syntactical functions in the sentence. It can function as:
the subject of the sentence:
To travel means to enlarge your horizons.
a predicative
To forgive is to understand all.
an object:
Will you teach me to dance?
an attribute:
There is a problem to solve.
The verbal features of the infinitive are:
It has tense, aspect and voice distinctions (see further)
The infinitive of a transitive verb has a direct object:
I hope to see you there.
It can be modified by an adverb:
Our aim is to speak English fluently.
The forms of the infinitive
Active Passive
Indefinite to do to be done
Continuous to be doing ---------
Perfect to have done to have been done
Perfect Continuous to have been doing ---------
The tense distinctions of the infinitive are relative, not absolute (the indefinite infinitive expresses simultaneity, the perfect infinitive expresses priority).
He helped us to do the work. (simultaneity)
I’m sorry to have been of so little help. (priority)
Note 1. After the modal verbs should, could, ought to, might, to be to the perfect infinitive is used to show that the action considered desirable or planned was not carried out:
You should have phoned me at once.
I ought to have known it.
Note 2. After the past tense of the verbs to hope, to intend, to expect the perfect infinitive is used to show that the action was not carried out:
I intended to finish the book soon. (maybe I did it)
I intended to have finished the book soon. (but I didn’t)
The continuous non-perfect infinitive expresses an action in its progress simultaneous with the action of the finite verb:
You don’t seem to be listening.
The perfect continuous infinitive expresses an action in progress which began or took place before the action expressed by the finite verb:
Christopher, when she opened the door, appeared to have been drinking.
THE PARTICLE TO BEFORE THE INFINITIVE
The particle to is the indication of the infinitive. But there are cases when it is omitted. This takes place:
1. after the auxiliary verbs do, does, shall, will, should, would:
— Do you speak French? — I don't know it.
— Shall I help them? — They will do it themselves.
—What should I do? — We would call you if we could.
2. after the modal verbs (except ought to, be to, have to) and the modal phrases (had better, would rather, cannot but, nothing but, would sooner):
My sister can play football.
What must I do?
You'd better leave now.
We cannot but refuse him.
3. after the verbs of sense perception to hear, to see, to feel, to notice, to watch
Somebody heard him say that.
Nobody saw them leave.
We noticed her turn pale.
She watched the plane land.
Note. The verb to be after the verb to feel is used with the particle to: I felt it to be wrong. (The verb to feel is a verb of mental perception here).
But: if the verbs are in the Passive Voice the infinitive is used with the participle "to".
He was heard to say that.
They were seen to leave.
She was made to do it.
4. after the verbs of compulsion to let, to make and to have in the meaning to force:
Let us discuss the problem.
I'll make you understand it.
You can't make me do such a thing.
I’ll have him tell the truth.
Note. The verb let isn't used in the passive voice; the verb to allow is used instead.
They were allowed to come home late.
5. In questions starting with Why? (почему бы не?)
Why do it? Why risk it?
Why not go to a pub?
Why not tell us the whole story?
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE INFINITIVE IN THE SENTENCE
The Infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions:
1. a subject:
To live means to create.
Though the infinitive as the subject sometimes precedes the predicate, cases when it follows the predicate are more common. Then the sentence begins with the introductory “it”, which serves as an introductory subject.
It is important to do it now.
It is useless to discuss the question.
2. part of a compound verbal predicate:
a) part of a compound verbal modal predicate after modal verbs and the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, to be going to:
You can do it without my help.
The train was to leave at midnight.
b) part of a compound verbal aspective predicate after aspective verbs (to begin, to start, to continue) and used to:
They began to discuss the question.
3. part of a compound nominal predicate (a predicative) after the link-verbs to be and to mean:
Our intention was to help you.
All we can do is to wait.
To live means to create.
4. part of a predicative
This pattern is rather typical of spoken English.
She was pleasant to look at.
His telephone number is easy to remember.
The form of the infinitive is only indefinite active.
5. An object.
after the verbs: to agree, to arrange, to decide, to expect, to fail, to help, to hope, to pretend, to manage, to refuse, to want and some others.
They arranged to visit him the next day.
He refused to see me.
She asked me to wait a little.
after the expressions to be glad, to be sorry, to be happy, etc:
I’m glad to see you here.
6. a postmodifying attribute (after nouns, indefinite and negative pronouns, ordinal numerals, the adjective “last”):
It is a nice place to live in.
Here is real1y nothing to worry about.
He was always the last to see a joke.
If we have a passive infinitive used attributively it expresses stronger modality:
Compare:
This is a rule to remember.
This is a rule to be remembered. (The second is more emphatic)
7. an adverbial modifier
of purpose (in order, so as)
I’ve come here to talk with you.
He stopped to smoke.
of result
It mainly occurs after adjectives modified by the adverbs enough or too:
She knew French well enough to read books.
I’m too tired to go there.
of unexpected result.
He awoke one morning to find himself famous.
He put his hand into his pocket to see his money gone.
d) of comparison or manner after as if, as though:
He stood up as if to greet me.
8. a parenthesis.
to be frank,
to tell the truth,
to begin with,
to crown it all,
to be sure,
to put it mildly,
to make things worse,
to say the least
needless to say;
to make a long story short,
to be exact, strange to say,
to say nothing.
to be on the safe side, etc.
9. part of a complex object, complex subject, for-phrase or of-phrase.
COMPLEXES WITH THE INFINITIVE
THE COMPLEX OBJECT
The Complex Object is a predicative construction which consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case and an infinitive.
The relations between the noun or the pronoun and the infinitive are similar to those between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. The infinitive in this construction is sometimes called a secondary predicate while the noun or the pronoun a secondary subject. They are considered to express predication like the subject and the predicate that’s why complexes with the infinitive as well as those with other verbals are called predicative.
The Complex Object with the infinitive is used after the following groups of verbs:
1) after the verbs of sense perception to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice. The infinitive may be only indefinite active, the particle to is omitted.
I felt something touch my hand.
No one has ever heard her cry.
Note. When the verbs to see and to hear are used in the meaning of mental activity (to see= to understand, to hear=to know) a subordinate clause is used.
I saw that he didn’t know anything.
I hear that he left for the South last week.
2) After verbs of mental activity to think, to believe, to consider, to suppose, to find, to feel (=to consider), to mean, to understand:
I knew him to be a clever boy.
I don‘t expect this fine weather to continue.
All the forms of the infinitive may be used here.
The doctor found his heart to have stopped two hours before.
3) after the verbs of liking, disliking, wish: to want, to wish, to desire, to like, to love, to dislike, to hate:
He wants you to wait here.
I dislike you to talk like that.
The infinitive is only indefinite, sometimes passive:
I wish the work to be done in time.
He hated the window to be closed.
4) after the verbs of order, permission, request (the infinitive is only indefinite, preferably active):
- to allow, to permit, to order, to command, to force, to cause, to get (the infinitive is used with the particle to);
The doctor permitted the room to be aired.
He ordered the letter to be sent at once.
- to let, to have, to make (the particle to is omitted)
I won’t have you speak like that.
She made me obey her.
5) after certain verbs requiring a prepositional object: to count (up)on, to rely (up)on, to look for, to wait for, to listen to (without “to”)
I rely on you to come in time.
He was looking for somebody to help him
He was listening to the chairman speak.
THE COMPLEX SUBJECT
The Complex Subject is a predicative construction which consists of two parts: nominal and verbal. The nominal part consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The verbal part is expressed by an infinitive. The complex subject is used:
I. With the following predicate verbs in the passive voice:
a) the verbs of sense perception (mostly to see and to hear):
He was seen to enter the room.
The infinitive is indefinite active.
b) with the verbs of mental activity to think, to believe, to consider, to suppose, to know, to expect, to understand:
He is expected to be leaving tonight.
He is considered to be right.
He is known to have been a sailor in his youth.
c) with the verbs of order and permission: to force, to allow, to make, to order, etc.
I was made to repeat my story.
The infinitive is indefinite active.
d) with the verbs of saying: to say, to report, to announce, to declare. All the forms of the infinitive are possible here.
The storm was reported to be approaching.
The actress is said to have been popular in her youth.
Sentences of this type belong to the official bookish style. In colloquial English the combinations they say, people say are used.
II. The Complex Subject is used with the following verbs and expressions in the active voice:
a) with the verbs of seeming: to seem, to appear, to turn out, to prove, to happen. With the verb to happen the infinitive is never perfect, while after the other verbs all the forms of the infinitive are possible:
The weather seems to be changing.
This book seems to have been on sale all this time.
He turned out to be a good friend.
I happened to know his telephone number.
Note. With the verbs of seeming the predicate verb is used in the negative form to make the sentence negative.
He doesn’t seem to understand me.
b) with the expressions to be likely (unlikely), to be sure, to be certain. The infinitive is usually indefinite active.
They are sure to arrive in two days.
You are not likely to believe my story.
Note. When the infinitive is part of a complex subject the particle to is always used.
FOR-PHRASES WITH THE INFINITIVE
A for-phrase with the infinitive is a predicative complex with the infinitive which can have different functions in the sentence, those of the subject, the predicative, an object, an attribute, an adverbial modifier:
It was very difficult for me to believe that (the subject).
That is for you to decide (the predicative).
We waited for the moon to rise (an object).
There was no need for him to answer (an attribute).
He stepped aside for us to pass (an adverbial modifier of purpose).
His home was too far west for anyone to come to meet him (an adverbial modifier of result).
There was time enough for her to calm herself (an adverbial modifier of result).
OF-PHRASES WITH THE INFINITIVE
An of-phrase with the infinitive is a predicative complex with the infinitive which always functions as the real subject of the sentence beginning with the anticipatory it and follows the predicate whose predicative is expressed by such adjectives as good, kind, nice, silly, clever, bad, etc.
It was very kind of you to help me.
It is very bad of him not to have told them about that before.
INFINITIVE PHRASES WHICH DO NOT EXPRESS PREDICATIVE RELATIONS
These phrases may be introduced:
by the conjunctive adverbs when, where, how, why
by the conjunctive pronouns who(m), what, which
by the conjunction whether
These phrases can perform different functions in the sentence, those of the subject, the predicative, an object or an attribute:
When to start is not yet decided (the subject).
The question is whom to invite (the predicative).
She had some doubt what to do next (an attribute).
We hesitated whether to accept the invitation or not (an object).
THE GERUND