18.Give examples of Ukrainian semantic equivalents rendering the meanings of the English nominative absolute participial constructions in the sentence.

1. The nominative absolute participial constructions consisting of a synthetic or analytical paradigm of the present participle. This type of secondary predication complexes may have the form of a synthetic or an analytic paradigm of the participle. For example, in the underlined nominative absolute participial construction This duty done, we refilled our glasses (J.K.Jerome), the paradigm of the participle is simple, i.e. synthetic. It has been derived, respectively, either from a less extended (The duty being done), or from a more extended/full analytical paradigm of this participle (The duty having been done). The contracted and less extended forms of the nominative absolute participial constructions are much more occurent in present-day English than their full paradigmatic forms, in which some emphasis is always laid on the categorial meanings (tense, aspect, voice) of the action expressed through the componental parts of the paradigm. Cf.: This duty having (perfective aspect) been (passive voice) done (accomplished action). When no

emphasis is laid on the categorial rheanings in the paradigm of the participle, only the nucleus of it (the past participle) is usually used.

The number of components/elements in the paradigm of the participle has actually no influence on the expression of meaning and translation of this predicative construction, which can be seen from the sentence below:

This duty done, we unfilled our Оскільки з цим було вирішено.

glasses, lit our pipes, and re- ми осушили келихи, запалили sumed the discussion upon our люльки й знову стали бідкатись state of health. (J.K.Jerome) про своє здоров'я.

The syntactic/functional meaning of the participial construction in this isolated sentence may be considered temporal as well. Then its Ukrainian traslation wil be respectively Після того, як із иим було вирішено, ми...

It should be pointed out that only the analytical paradigms, which contain the constituent elements of the passive and perfect participles of some verbs may be condensed. When the participial paradigm is represented in the nominative absolute participial con­structions through a single present participle expressing an action of the secondary subject, it can not be transformed into an extended paradigm or contracted. Thus, the present participle opening in thesentence James' face protruded naively, his mouth opening. (Galsworthy) can not undergo any complete transformation through reduction.

2. The second structural type constitute the nominative ab­solute participial constructions that contain no participle component at all. The relation of the predication in complexes of this type is implicitly inherent in and is realized through a prepositional (usually with a noun or pronoun) or a substantival word-group. Cf.:

Now, with this visit to Cardiff Тепер, лаштуючись до

in prospect, he wished her to ас- поїздки до Кардіффа. він хотів, company him. (Cronin) щоб Крістін супроводжувала

його. Не sat down, his face serious Він сів серйозний і

and intent, and his fingers began зосереджений за рояль, і його to race across the keyboard, пальці швидко забігали по (S.Sheldon) клавішах.

With so much at stake, he did Коли стільки ставилося на

not want to appear inhospitable, карту, він хотів здаватися (Ibid.) якомога гостиннішим.

3. The third structural type form subjectless nominative abso­ lute participial complexes. Their secondary subject may have a clearly addressed or an indistinctly addressed reference to the subject of the introductory clause. An illustration to the first subtype of such nomi­ native absolute participial constructions may be the following exam­ ple: Though being left out all night in the rain, the metal had not rusted. (Maugham)

The secondary predicate (being left out) of the nominative absolute participial construction clearly refers to the noun of the matrix clause «metal». Consequently, its translation is easy: Метал хоч і пролежав цілу ніч під дощем, (він) не поіржавів.

In opposition to this, in the second type of subjectless nomina­tive absolute participial constructions the addressed referent in the introductory/matrix part of the sentence is not clearly indicated by the secondary predicate:

Bobbing and bounding upon the spring cushions, silent, sway­ing to each motion of their chariot. Old Jolyon watched them drive away under the sunlight. (Galsworthy)

The actions expressed by the participles of the nominative absolute participial constructions here refer to the pronoun they. There­fore, it is the secondary subject to the participles in this syntactic construction, which should be translated with the orientation on this pronoun: Старий Джоліон дивився, як вони, мовчки похитуючись і підгуцуючи на пружинистих сидіннях брички, віддалялися в яскравому сонячному світлі.

4. The fourth structural type constitute nominative absolute participial constructions whose semantic reference to a part of the introductory clause (or to the clause as a whole) is quite vague and scarcely traced. As a result, such nominative absolute participial constructions function together with their secondary subjects as regu­ lar clauses of a semi-composite sentence. Though semantically not completely independent, these quasi-clauses are difficult to incorpo­ rate semantically and syntactically into Ukrainian sentences, which can be seen from the following sentence:

She reached the lake and stood there staring at it, the wind whipping the thin night-gown around her body. (S.Sheldon)

Neither the secondary subject (the wind) nor the secondary predicate (whipping the thin night-gown...) has any explicit syntactic and semantic connection with the introductory clause She reached the lake and stood there staring at it.

The vague, almost untraced semantic connection of the quasi-

clause with the introductory clause pan be guessed, naturally, 0Л the basis of the contextual environment from which some temporal se­quence of actions can be seen: the wind whipped her nightgown after she had reached the lake. Hence, one of the translation versions may be as follows: Коли вона підішла до озера й стала, вдивляючись у нього, вітер затріпотів тонесенькою нічною сорочкою, шо тісно облягала її тіло.

Because of the vague temporal reference of actions expressed by the predicative complex/quasi-clause, which is actually independ­ent syntactically, it can also be translated as a separate sentence: Вона підійшла до озера й стала, вдивляючись у нього. Шугнув вітер і затріпотів тоненькою нічною сорочкою, що тісно облягала її тіло.

Therefore, translation of these secondary predication construc­tions is predetermined by some semantic and syntactic factors, the main of which are as follows:

1. the structural type of the nominative absolute participial complex;

1. the function of the complex in the sentence;

2. its reference to a part of the introductory/semantically main clause of the semi-composite sentence.

Rendering

The lexical and functional meanings of different NAPCs in sim­ple and composite sentences may sometimes be rendered in Ukrain­ian with the help of some other means too:

1. With the help of the participial (diyepryslivnyk) construction or by means of a single diyepryslivnyk:

The two guards listened, their Обидва вартові слухали,

faces turned to the rifle-slit, their пороззявлявши роти і mouths hanging open. (Greene) повернувшись обличчям до

амбразури. «І felt compassion for him,» «Мені стало шкода його/я

said Louisa, her colour deepen- відчула жаль до нього,» - ing ... (Dickens) відповіла, зашарівшись, Луїза...

2. With the help of a prepositional noun, a noun phrase or a participial/diyepryslivnyk construction:

His head lowered, holding to Тримаючись за перила, з

the banister, Andrew went up- низько похиленою головою. stairs. (Cronin) Ендрю пішов до себе нагору.

This NAPC may also be translated with the help of the parti­cipial/diyepryslivnyk construction: Потупивши голову і тримаючись за перила, Ендрю почвалав до себе нагору.

3. As a participial (diyepryslivnyk) construction or a subordi­ nate (mostly adverbial) clause:

The champagne poured. Наливши шампанського.

Andrew sat back. (Cronin) Ендрю знову сів.

The corresponding temporal clause for the NAPC may be Після того, як /Коли Ендрю налив шампанського, він знову сів.

4. With the help of a prepositional noun:

He was watching her, his eyes Він з цікавістю спостерігав

amused. (Sheldon) за нею.

5. By an adverbial substantival word-group or a single adverb: His voice low. Alexander said, Олександр стиха запитав:

«He died, didn't he?» (Hailey) «Він помер, так?»

19.The nature of modality and the main means of expressing it in English and Ukrainian. Comment on the meanings expressed by the constructions of the modal verbs can, may, must plus the perfect infinitive.

1. Thus, the modal verb can/could expressing physical or mental ability is usually translated into Ukrainian with the help of the modal verbs могти, вміти or by means of their equivalents мати змогу/ можливість, бути в змозі/мати силу:

а)І saw that he could hardly Я бачив, що він не може/не

take his eys off her. (Maugham) має сили очей відірвати від неї.

«А тепер ти молись, Гарольде,» - сказала вона. «Я не вмію.» відповів Кребс.

«Я не мав змоги зробити те, що надумав зробити ...»

«Now, you pray, Harold,» she said. «I can't», said. Krebs. (Hemingway)

«I haven't been able to do what I meant.» (E. Warton)

b) When expressing doubt, distrust, uncertainty, etc. (mainly in interrogative and negative sentences) the meaning of can/could is mostly enforced in Ukrainian with the help of the particles невже, хіба or the adverb навряд:

«Can't you believe me, mother?» (Hemingway)

«It can't be the same man -«(Christie)

It can't possibly be Walter.» (Maugham)

«Невже (хіба) ви мені не вірите, мамо?»

«Навряд чи це той самий чоловік.»

«Та невже/хіба то Волтер?»/ Навряд чи то Волтер.

с) When expressihg the meaning of reproach, surprise or per­mission the lexical equivalent of the modal verb can in Ukrainian is mostly the stative можна:

Як можна таке обіцяти/ такого наобіцяти?

«Можна прийти й подивитись ваші картини?»

«Маючи все це, не можна залишати жінку без шеляга.»

«How can one promise that?» (Greene)

«Can I come up and see your pictures?» (Hemingway)

«Having it all, one can't leave a woman without a bob.» (Maugham)

d) When the modal verb can expresses irrefutability of action or assuredness of statement, it may be conveyed in Ukrainian, where this kind of modal meaning is usually expressed implicitly, through a definite word-order and sentence stress (prosodic means):

«You can't teach an old dog «Старого вчити - тільки

new tricks.» (D. Lessing) час марнувати.»

There was nothing, the boy Хлопцеві нічого не зали-

could do but run. (J.K. Jerome) шалось, як тікати.

Can the leopard change his Горбатого могила випра-

spots? (Saying) вить.

e) Some modal meanings of can/could are expressed in Ukrain­ ian either lexico-grammatically or through phonological means. The choice of the means rests then exclusively with the translator. Thus, in the sentence below the meaning of the modal verb could is under logical (or emphatic) stress which may be marked (pointed out) accordingly in Ukrainian:

/ could know it without your telling me. (B. Sha w) Я міг довідатись про це і без тебе.

The same could in the isolated sentence may also be treated as a form of the subjunctive mood, marked by the participle б/би: Я довідався б/міг би довідатись про це і без твоєї допомоги.

«І can't recollect him.» «Я щось не пригадую/не

(Greene) можу його пригадати.»

« Why can't he goto a hospi- « Чому він не може лягти в

tal?» (Christie) шпиталь?/Чому він не лягає

до шпиталю?»

Note. Some English modal meanings of can have no corre­sponding equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.: / can see in this picture. Я бачу на цій картині... І can hear you well. Я добре тебе чую. Сап you see me? Ти мене бачиш ?

f) In some contextual environment the modal meaning of can may be expressed in Ukrainian through other modal verbs:

«How can you talk to me like «Як ти смієш зі мною так

that.» (Fitzgerald) розмовляти.»

«We had an awful time getting «Повинен тобі сказати,

back, I can tell you.» (Ibid.) дорога назад була страшенно

важка.»

The modal verb can/could followed by the perfect infinitive and

expressing a probable, doubtful, uncertain, incredible, etc. action is usually translated into Ukrainian depending on its contextual mean­ing. The latter may be expressed: 1) through the past form of the corresponding verb (indicative mood) or 2) through its subjunctive mood form (умовний спосіб). For example:

1) «She can't have neglected «Невже вона всім цим all that.» (F.King) знехтувала?»

«Вона не могла всім цим знехтувати.»

2) «How could she have been «Як вона могла так like that?» (Fitzgerald) поводитись/бути такою?»

Nobody could ha ve sa ved him. Ніхто його не врятував би/

(W. Trevor) Навряд чи хто врятував би його.

But he could have lived, this Проте хлопчина той міг би

boy. (Hailey) й жити/міг би й вижити.

2. The modal verb may/might with its lexical equivalents to be permitted I to be allowed has also some peculiarites of use and expression of meaning. The latter predetermines the use of its Ukrain­ian lexical equivalents. Thus, when the modal verb may/might ex­presses permission it is usually translated into Ukrainian as the stative можна. For example:

a) «Now may Ідо?» (Christie) «To що, можна мені йти?»

At the hospital they told me І «У шпиталі сказали, що

might wait.» (Ibid.) мені можна почекати.»

This meaning of may, as can be seen below, coincides with the meaning of the modal verb can in the indefinite personal or impersonal sentences as in One can count it/It could be counted on the fingers of one hand- це можна(можна було) порахувати на пальцях однієї руки.

b) The meanings of permission expressed by the modal verb may/might can equally be conveyed by the Ukrainian verbs дозволяти, не заперечувати:

«May I speak now? « Тепер дозволяєте/можна

(Maugham) мені говорити?»

«May I offer you some fruit?» «Можна запропонувати

(E.Bates) вам/Не заперечуватимете

проти фруктів?»

c) When the verb may/might expresses possibility (coinciding with the verb can/could) or probability, assumption, uncertainty, admonition, advice, etc., it is usually translated into Ukrainian with the help of the polysemantic verb могти.

This verb is therefore homonymous in its meaning incorporat­ing in Ukrainian the meanings of can and may wnich can be seen from the following sentence:

«I think I may remind him of а «Я могтиму/матиму змогу.

time he prefers to forget.» думаю, пригадати йому той (Christie) час, про який він воліє не

згадувати.»

d) When expressing assumption, probability, presumability, wish, advice, etc., the verb may and its past (or subjunctive) form might often acquires some additional modal meaning which is mostly ren­dered into Ukrainian with the help of different modal particles. The most frequently employed of them are б, ще/ще й, хай, etc.

«Let's wait a little more, she «Зачекаймо трохи, вона ще

utes.» (Bailey)

Bass said we might get some

of the laundry of the men at the

hotel to do. (Dreiser)

« We shall never be married.» «Some time - we might,» said

Dorothea in a trembling voice.

(Seghal)

might return in a couple of min- може (може ще й) прийде за

кілька хвилин.»

Бас каже, що ми могли б брати в пожителів готелю білизну прати (для прання). «Ми ніколи не одружимось.» «А може колись і одружи­мось,» відповіла Доротея тремтливим голосом.

є) When expressing wish, the subjunctive meaning of may is conveyed in Ukrainian either with the help of the particles хай or щоб, initiating the sentences:

May they live a long life. Хай їм щастить.

May damnation take him. Щоб він був проклятий./Хай

йому трясия!

f) Some modal meanings (supposition, assumption, desire, etc.) expressed in English by may/mightare rendered into Ukrainian through modal particles and a peculiar logical word order:

«May He (God) support me too.» (H. Ha wthorne)

Between the cup and the lip a morsel may slip. (Proverb)

«Might he not, later, be pun­ished for a thing like this?» (Dreiser)

«Допоможи й мені, Боже.» (Хай Бог помагає й мені.)

Не кажи гоп, доки не перескочиш (Скажеш гоп, як перескочиш).

«А його за це часом/згодом не покарають?»(А його не можуть потім покарати?)

g) The modal verb may is often used in the language of docu­ments to express polite though severe warning:

A Member of the United Na- Держава - член Організації

tions which has persistently vio- Об'єднаних Націй, яка lated the Principles contained in постійно порушує зазначені в the present Charter may be ex- цьому Статуті принципи,

pelled from the organisation by the може бути виключена з ООН

General Assembly upon the rec- Генеральною Асамблеєю

ommendation of the Security згідно рекомендації Ради

Council. (Charter of the United Na- Безпеки. (Статут Організації

tions) Об'єднаних Націй).

h) The modal verb may/might followed by a perfect infinitive often expresses supposition, desire, uncertainty, probability, etc., of actions which might not have been carried out. When isolated from a contextual environment, the construction of may/might with the per­fect infinitive may be treated as polysemantic and consequently of­fered different interpretatations in Ukrainian. Thus, the sentence «She may ha ve forgotten, you know; or got the evening mixed.» (Galsworthy) may have the following five faithful (from the translator's point of view) interpretetions/variants:

1. «Знаєте, вона мабуть забула чи сплутала вечір.»

2. «Вона певне забула або сплутала вечір.»

3. «Можливо, вона забула чи сплутала вечір.»

4. «Цілком імовірно, що вона забула чи сплутала вечір.»

5. «Знаєте, а може вона забула чи сплутала вечір.»

і) There appears still more uncertainty while conveying the mean­ing of may/mightwAh the negated perfect infinitive as in the sentence «The aircraft might not have been downed in the action.» (USA Today) The lexical ambiguity of the construction can be seen from the following possible variants of its interpretation in Ukrainian:

1. Літак може й не збито в тім бою.

2. Літак мабуть не збито в тім бою.

3. Цілком імовірно, що літак не був збитий у тому бою.

4. Навряд чи літак був збитий у тому бою.

5. Може літака й не збили в тому бою.

These meanings of may/might are naturally realized through the infinitive forming the content core of the modal predicate in the sentence.

In many sentences the modal verb might adds a subjunctive meaning to the predicate, which it is a part of, as in the following example:

Mrs.Gerhardt thought of all the Дженні Ґергардт перебрала

places to which she might apply, й усі інші місця, де можна було (Dreiser) б спитати про роботу.

3. The modal verb must has also some peculiar features of its own. Borrowed by Ukrainian from German through Polish, this verb in English and Ukrainian expresses strong obligation, duty, necessity. In these meanings must has for its direct lexical equivalents the strongest Ukraininan modal verb of this same meaning мусити.

a) «Now I really must get back to my tasks. End of term in sight, «Тепер я мушу серйозно

you know.» (Murdoch) взятись за роботу. Знаєш,

We must eat, we must drink, скоро кінець семестру.» and we must be merry. (Saying) Ми мусимо їсти, пити і

мусимо завжди бути веселими.

b) Not without the long influence of the Russian language, which was for some centuries a dominant political factor in Ukraine, the modal verb мусити has been more often substituted by urban Ukrain­ians for its almost as strong semantically Ukrainian synonym повинен or for the modal stative треба. То convey the meaning of necessity, duty or obligation, expressed by the modal verb must, whose direct Ukrainian equivalent is still often avoided on the aforenamed grounds, present-day Ukrainians often resort to the additional use of the modal adverb обов'язково:

«I must sit down. This leg gets «Я мушу/повинен сісти,

tired.» (Greene) Щось поболює оця нога.»

«You must certainly send it «Ти повинен обов'язково вис-

(picture) next year to the тавити портрет наступного

Grosvenor.» (О. Wilde) року у павільйоні Ґросвенор.

The meaning of must in both English sentences above directly corresponds to our Ukrainian мусити, which is also proved by the use of the intensifying modal adverb обов'язково in the last sentence.

It may naturally not always be clear from an isolated sen­tence, which of the possible meanings the modal verb must ex­presses: that of the strongest (мусити) or those of the somewhat weaker ones (повинен, треба). Thus, from Martin Eden's words in the sentence below is not clear whether it is Ruth's duty, moral/ presumptive obligation or her necessity to address her father: «And you must tell your father for me.» (London) Hence, the translator may suggest three possible equivalents for this modal meaning of must in Ukrainian:

1. «І/А ти мусиш сказати це за мене батькові.» (duty, ob­ligation)

2. «І/А ти повинна сказати це за мене батькові.» (neces­sity)

3. «І/А тобі треба самій сказати це за мене батькові.» (presumptive obligation)

с) The translator may sometimes choose the Ukrainian lexical equivalent of must under the influence of the traditionally established usage of a modal meaning in his native tongue. Thus, the meaning of necessity, obligation following from a prescription or rule, may often be expressed in Ukrainian through strict logical word order or via some other finite verbs with the intensifying adverb, as can be observed in the following sentences:

«I musn't take the money,» «Я ніколи не візьму цих гро-

said Carry, after they were settled шей,» - відповіла Керрі, коли вони in a cosy corner... (Dreiser) сіли в затишному куточку...

The Constitution of the US Конституцією США вста-

specifies that a nationwide cen- новлено, що державний пере- sus, a «head count» ofailAmeri- nuc («поголівний облік») насе- cans, must be taken every ten лення повинен проводитися years. (O.K. Stevenson) кожні десять років.

d) When expressing assumption oj supposition, the modal verb must may have for its lexical equivalent in Ukrainian a contextually fitting modal adverb or a modal particle:

є) Some meanings of this modal verb are formally obligatory in English, where they express obligation or certainty but they may not have an explicit expression of these meanings in Ukrainian:

«I must apologize, Agnes, I'm very sorry...» (Coward)

«I thought you must be away.» (Maugham)

« What must you ha ve thought of me?» (Maugham)

«It must seem very funny to you.» (Galsworthy)

«Were the people looking at her? They must be.» (Mansfield)

«Якщо я почуваюсь так, це означає, що моє серце більш не витримує.»

«Прошу вибачити. Еґнес;

f) Therefore, the usual meaning of must in some Ukrainian con­texts may be weaker than in the English language original where it clearly expresses certainty, duty or obligation. Consequently, it can not be substituted in Ukrainian for either the modal verb мусити or for its weaker variant повинен. Then, some other equivalents have to be chosen for such nationally predetermined meanings of must. For instance:

« What must you ha ve thought of me?» (Maugham)

«It must seem very funny to you.» (Galsworthy)

«Were the people looking at her? They must be.» (Mansfield

Some contextual meanings of must have a national Ukrainian non-explicit expression of modality. For example: «Come, Dave, you must see.» (London)

«Ходіть-но. Дейве. подивіться.» or: «Ходи-но, Дейве, на свої

очі пересвідчишся.»

g) The Ukrainian modal verb мусити or повинен is to be used, however, when conveying the meaning of the English syntagmeme have got (to) with the indefinite infinitive having the function of the compound modal verbal predicate:

«I've got to stay sober.» «Я повинен/маю бути

(Greene) тверезим.»

«Doris, I've got something to «Доріс, я маю/повинен

тобі

say to you.» (Hemingway) дещо сказати.»

h) The modal verb must when used with the perfect infinitive usually expresses actions supposed to have taken or not taken place but of which the speaker is mostly informed. The meaning of thus expressed action is usually rendered into Ukrainian with the help of the modal adverbs or particles можливо, очевидно, мабуть, напевно, певне:

«Не must have fallen off when «Зброєносець певне випав

we left the first bull.» (Hemingway) з машини, коли ми від їхали від

першого застреленого буй­ вола.» So Dr. Brown's whispered Тут лікар Браун промовив:

words:«The man must have been «Цей чоловік уже мертвий dead a week.» (Greene) напевно з тиждень.»

Some probable action expressed by the modal verb must with the negative particle not and the perfect infinitive shows that the ac­tion might have been carried out. Though other interpretations, i.e., expressions of the meaning are not excluded either:

She must not have followedthe Вона не повинна була

advice... (Austen) виконувати цю пораду...

Some other interpretations of this modal verb with the perfect infinitive construction may be quite opposite to that in the sentence above. Namely:

1. Навряд чи вона послухалася тієї поради.

2. Не може бути, щоб вона послухалася тієї поради.

3. їй не треба було слухатися тієї поради.

As in the similar case with may/might plus the perfect infini­tive, there may be also other contextual meanings of must with the perfect or indefinite/continuous infinitive. These meanings can also be found in the compound modal predicates of sentences given in the exercises that follow.