- •2. The connection of lexicology with phonetics, grammar and stylistics.
- •2 The original stock of English words
- •3. The distinction of the terms "source of borrowing", "origin of borrowing", "translation loans", "semantic loans".
- •4. Assimilation of borrowings.
- •1. A word as a fundamental unit of a language.
- •2. Classification of morphemes.
- •4. Structural types of words.
- •1. Productive ways of word-building
- •1.1. Affixation
- •1.3. Substantivation
- •1.4. Compounding (Composition)
- •1.5. Shortening
- •1(Thought or
- •3,The classification of meanings of words
- •1. Classification of synonyms
- •3. Antonyms. Types of antonyms.
- •1. Different types of non-semantic grouping
- •1.1 Morphological grouping of words
- •1.2 Lexico-Grammatical groups.
- •1.3. Thematic groups
- •4. Vocabulary in the process of time
- •Phraseology
- •Criteria to distinguish free word-groups and phraseological units:
- •Structural criterion: restriction in substitution
- •Semantic classification of V.V. Vinogradov
- •Structural classification of phraseological units by a.I. Smirnitsky
- •A.V. Koonin’s classification of phraseological units
- •Classification of phraseological units according to their origin
- •Proverbs, familiar quotations, sayings
- •Stylistic layers of english vocabulary
- •Functional styles
- •Stylistic aspects of formal English
- •Colloquialisms as a characteristic feature of informal vocabulary
- •Dialectal and territorial vocabulary variations
- •Different varients of English
- •Lexicography
- •Historical development of lexicography
- •The main types of modern dictionaries
- •According to the relationships existing between the words. They are synonymic dictionaties, dialect dictionaties, dictionaties of Americanisms, etc.
4. Assimilation of borrowings.
The term "assimilation of loan words" is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system. There are the following types of assimilation:
a) phonetic (the phonetic system of the language sometimes changes the loan word so that it may become unrecognizable to native speakers ;
b) grammatical (borrowings acquire English grammatical categories and paradigms by the analogy to other English words;
c) semantic (envoives the changes in the semantic structure of the word. Foreign polysemantic word may become monosemantic).
The degree of assimilation depends upon the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving language, upon its importance for communication purpose and its frequency. According to the degree of assimilation we classify loan words into completely assimilated loan words, partially assimilated loan words and unassimilated loan words (or barbarisms).
Completely assimilated loan words follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards. They take an active part in word-formation. Their morphological structure remain transparent. For example, the word sport is a shortening of disport<OF. desporter means "to amuse oneself, "to carry oneself away from one's work". Partially assimilated loan words can be subdevided into:
a) loan words not assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come. They may denote foreign clothes (sari, sombrero), foreign titles and proffessions (shah, sheik, bei, toreador), food and drinks (pilav (Persian), sherbet (Arabian), sushi (Chinese), etc.);
b) loan words not assimilated grammaticaly, for example, nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek which keep their original plural forms (e.g. bacillus ::pi. bacilli, crisis v.pl. crises, formula ::pi. formulae);
c) loan words not completely assimilated phonetically, for example, some loan words borrowed from French after 1650. Some of them keep an accent on the final syllable (e.g. machine, cartoon, police). Others, contaimounds or combination of sounds that are standard for the English language (e.g. the sound [dz] - bourgeois, camouflage, prestige, sabotage); ^
d) loan words not completely assimilated graphically, these words, for instance, borrowed from French in which the final consonant is not pronounced (e.g. ballet, buffet). Some may keep diacritic mark (cafe, cliche).
Some loan words often show incomplete assimilation in several aspects simultaneously.
Barbarisms are words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents, e.g. the Italian addio, ciao — English equivalent good-bye the French afiche - English equivalent placard the Latin ad libitum - English equivalent at pleasure.
5. Etymological hybrids and doublets.
Words whose elements are derived from different languages are called etymological hybrids. Hybrid is the process of adding borrowed affix to a native stem.
e.g. drinkable - drink (native stem) +-able (Romanic suffix)
distrust - trust (native stem) + dis- (Romanic prefix) Native affixes can also be added to foreign stems. e.g. beautiful - Romanic stem + native suffix -ful
useful - Latin stem + native suffix -ful
Etymological doublets are two or more words different in form and meaning but originated from the same source at different times.
e.g. senior (Lat.) — sir (Fr.) canal (Lat.) - chanal (Fr.)
hospital (Lat.) - hostel (Norm.Fr.) - hohel (Par.Fr.)
A doublet may also consist of a shortened word and the one from which it was derived, e.g. history — story, fantasy -fancy, fanatic - fan, shadow - shade.
THE MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORD
1. A word as a fundamental unit of a language.
2. Classification of morphemes.
3. Allomorph as a positional variant of a morpheme.
4. Structural types of words.