Phraseology

These language units find different names among scholars: set expressions, idioms (English and American linguists), set phrases (I.V. Arnold), word-equivalents (A.I. Smirnitsky) and phraseological units (Russian linguists).

Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units, and like words they express a single notion.

Criteria to distinguish free word-groups and phraseological units:

1. semantic criterion: free word-groups – each meaningful component stands for a separate concept (e.g. a red flower) phraseological units – convey a single concept (e.g. red tape)

Phraseological units are characterized by different degrees of semantic change:

• semantic change may affect the whole word-group (“complete transferred meaning”) e.g. to skate on thin ice (to take risks), to have one’s heart in one’s boots (to be anxious about smth.)

• semantic change may affect only one of the components of a word-group (“partially transferred meaning”) (e.g. to fall in love)

2. Structural criterion: restriction in substitution

- free word-groups – components may be changed (e.g. The cargo ship/vessel is carrying coal to Liverpool/ Manchester);

- phraseological units – no word can be replaced without destroying the sense (to carry coals to Newcastle)

Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.

The structural principle of classifying phraseological units is based on their ability to perform the same syntactical function as words. They are: verbal (to strike it rich – розбагатіти); substantive (apple of one’s eye); adjectival (skin deep – поверхневий); adverbial (at first sight); interjectional (good Heavens!)

Semantic classification of V.V. Vinogradov

The classification of phraseological units on the semantic principle devised by acad. V.V. Vinogradov is founded on the degree of semantic cohesion between the components of a phraseological unit. for Russian phraseological units. He classifies phraseological units into three types: phraseological fusions (сращения), phraseological unities (единства) and phraseological combinations (соче¬тания).

Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups, e.g. as mad as a hatter – 'utterly mad'; white elephant – 'an expensive but useless thing'.

Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated as their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit, e.g. to bend the knee – 'to submit to a stronger force, to obey submissively'; to wash one's dirty linen in public – 'to discuss or make public one's quarrels'.

Phraseological combinations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically, e.g. to meet the requirements. In this group of phraseological units some substitutions are possible which do not destroy the meaning of the metaphoric element, e.g. to meet the needs, to meet the demand, to meet the necessity.