The World of Doublespeak.

Originally from Racine, Wisconsin, William Lutz has been a professor of English at Rutgers University for the past fourteen years and was the editor of the “Quarterly Review of Doublespeak.” Through his book “Doublespeak: From Revenue Enhancement to Terminal Living” (1980), Lutz first awakened Americans to hoe people in important positions who were manipulating language. As chair of the National Council of Teachers of English’s committee on Public Doublespeak, Lutz has been a watchdog of public officials who use language to “mislead, distort, deceive, inflate, and circumvent, obfuscate.” Each year the committee presents the Orwell Awards, recognizing the most outrageous uses of public doublespeak in the worlds of government and business. Lutz’s most recent books are “The New Doublespeak: Why No One Knows What Anyone’s Saying Anymore.” (1997) and “Doublespeak Defined: Cut through the Bull**** and Get to the Point” (1999).

In the following essay, which first appeared in Christopher Ricks and Leonard Michaels’s anthology “State of the Language”(1990) Lutz examines which makes the bad seem good, the negative appear positive, the unpleasant attractive, or at least tolerable.” He identifies the various types of doublespeak and cautions us about the possible serious affects that doublespeak can have on our thinking.

Farmers no longer have cows, pigs, chicken, or other animals on their farms; according to the US Department of Agriculture, farmers have “grain - consuming animal units”(which ,according to the Tax Reform Act of 1996, are kept in “single – purpose agricultural structures ,”not pig pens and chicken coops). Attentive observers of the English language also learned recently that the multibillion dollar stock market crash of 19877 was simply a “ fourth quarter equity retreat” ; that airplanes don’t crash, they just have “uncontrolled contact with the ground”; that janitors are really “environmental technicians”; that it was a “diagnostic misadventure of a high magnitude” which caused the death of a partner in Philadelphia hospital, not medical malpractice; and that President Reagan was not really unconscious while he underwent minor surgery, he was just “in a non-decision –making form. ”In other words, doublespeak continues to spread as the official language of public discourse.

Doublespeak is a blanket term for language which pretends to communicate but doesn’t, language which makes the bad seem good, the negative appear positive, the unpleasant attractive, or at least tolerable. It is language, which avoids, shifts, or denies responsibility, language which is at variance with its real or its purported meaning. It is a language which conceals or prevents thought. Basic to doublespeak is incongruity, the incongruity between what is said, or left unsaid, and what really is: between the word and the referent, between seem and be, between the essential function of language communication, and what doublespeak does – mislead, distort, deceive, inflate, circumvent, obfuscate.

When shopping, we are asked to check our packages at the desk “for our convenience,” when it is not our convenience at all but the stores’ “program to reduce inventory shrinkage.” We see advertisements for “preowned”, “experienced”, or “previously distinguished” cars, for “genuine imitation leather”, “virgin vinyl”, or “real counterfeit diamonds.” Television offers not reruns but “encore telecasts” where the disadvantaged”,”economically no affluent” or “fiscal underachievers “live. Nonprofit organizations don’t make profit; they have “negative deficits” or “revenue excesses.” In the world of doublespeak dying is “terminal living.”

We know that toothbrush is still a toothbrush even if the advertisement on television calls it “home plaque removal instrument,” and even that “nutritional avoidance therapy” means a diet. But who would guess that a “volume – related production schedule adjustment” means closing an entire factory in the doublespeak of General Motors, or that “advanced downward adjustments” means budget cuts in the doublespeak of Caspar Weinberger, or that “energetic disassembly” means an explosion in a nuclear power plant in the doublespeak of the nuclear power industry?

The euphemism, an inoffensive or positive word or phrase designed to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful reality, can at times be doublespeak. But the euphemism can be also a tactful word or phrase; for example, “passed away” functions not just to protect the feelings of another person but also to express our concern for another’s grief. This use of euphemism used to mislead or deceive, however, becomes doublespeak. In 1984, the US State Department announced that in its annual reports on the status of human rights in countries around the world it would no longer use the word “killing.” Instead, it would use the phrase “unlawful or arbitrary deprivation of life”. Thus the State Department avoids discussing government –sanctioned killings in countries that the United States supports and has certified as respecting human rights.

The Pentagon also avoids unpleasant realities when it refers to bombs and artillery shells which fall on civilian targets as “incontinent ordnance” to slip funding for the neutron bomb unnoticed into an appropriations bill by calling it an “enhanced radiation device.” And in 1971 the CIA gave us the most famous of examples of doublespeak when it used the phrase “eliminate with extreme prejudice” to refer to the execution of a suspected double agent in Vietnam.

Gobbledygook or bureaucratese is another kind of doublespeak. Such doublespeak is simply a matter of overwhelming the audience with technical, unfamiliar words. When asked why US forced lacked intelligence information on Grenada before they invaded the island in 1983, Admiral Wesley L. McDonald told reporters that “we were micromanaging Grenada intelligence –wise until about that time frame.”

The investigation into the Challenger disaster in 1986 revealed the gobbledygook and bureaucratese used by many involved in the shuttle program. When Jess Moore, NASA’s associate administrator, was asked if the performance of the shuttle program had improved with each launch or if it had remained the same, he answered, “We know more about the envelope we were operating under, and we have been pretty accurately staying in that. And so I would say the performance has not by design drastically improved. I think we have been able to characterize the performance more as a function of our launch experience as opposed to it improving as a function of time.”

In the doublespeak of the military, the 1983 invasion of Grenada was conducted not by the US Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines but by the “Caribbean Peace Keeping Forces.” But then according to the Pentagon it wasn’t an invasion, it was a “predawn vertical insertion.”

These last examples of doublespeak should make it clear that doublespeak is not the product of careless language or sloppy thinking. Indeed, serious doublespeak is the product of clear thinking and is carefully designed and constructed to appear to communicate but in fact to mislead. Thus, it is not a tax increase but “revenue enhancement”, “tax base broadening”, or “user fees”, so how can you complain about higher taxes? It is not acid rain, it’s just “poorly buffered precipitation”, so don’t worry about all those dead trees. That isn’t the Mafia in Atlantic City, those are just “members of a career-offender cartel”, so do not worry about the influence of organized crime in the city. The Supreme Court Justice wasn’t addicted to the painkilling drug he was taking, it’s just that the drug had simply “established interrelationship with the body, such that if the drug is removed precipitously, there is a reaction”, so do not worry that his decisions might have been influenced by his drug addiction. Serious doublespeak is highly strategic, and it breeds suspicion, cynicism, distrust, and, ultimately, hostility.

Task 5:

Answer the comprehension questions on the text.

1. How does the author characterize doublespeak?

2. How does Lutz relate euphemisms and doublespeak?

3. What other kind of doublespeak does Lutz name?

4. What does doublespeak breed?

5. Why, according to Lutz, does “doublespeak continue to spread as the official language of public discourse”?

6. In your opinion, is doublespeak as wide-spread today as it was when Lutz wrote his article? What examples can you provide to back up your opinion?

7. Why does Lutz believe that we must recognize doublespeak for what it is and voice our dissatisfaction with those who use it?

8. What is Lutz’s purpose in this essay – to inform, to express thoughts and feelings or to persuade? What in this essay leads you to this conclusion?

Task 6:

Copy out from the text the examples of doublespeak that you found most striking.

Task 7:

Another sphere where Doublespeak is widely used is Legal English. Why do you think lawyers favor Doublespeak?

Task 8:

The term “doublespeak” was preceded by the word “doublethink” created by George Orwell in his famous novel “1984”.Doublethink is defined as “the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one’s mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them.”

Other related terms are “doubletalk” and “newspeak”.

The tendency spread wider and led to the appearance of new kinds of “speaks”. See for justice illustrations from “travelspeak”.

What the Brochures Say and What They Mean

Deserted beaches - sharks

Fantastic marine paradise – beach

Flourishing tropical garden – jungle

Radio - there is no TV

Dancing by moonlight - there is no roof

Games room – half a back of cards

An optional excursion - escape

Fun –filled atmosphere – everything will have too much to drink

Cultural shows – bored local earning, some extra cash

Relaxed, informal décor – plastic table cloths.

Task 9:

Write an article to the newspaper named “Hypocrisy is a political virtue.”

Give arguments and counterarguments. Use the style of doublespeak.

Unit IX.

Political Correctness.

Task1:

What do you know about “political correctness”? Write all the associations that come into your mind when you hear the collocation “political correctness.”

Task2:

Look at the following definitions of political correctness. Which one do you think is the most appropriate?

1. Not using expressions or actions that are seen to insult or upset groups of people according to particular characteristic

2. Using terms more acceptable and less hurtful than direct or outdated language (e.g. “mentally challenged” instead of “mentally retarded”)

3. Avoidance of expressions or actions that can be perceived to exclude or marginalize or insult people who are socially disadvantaged or discriminated against

4. Political correctness (often abbreviated to PC) is a term used to describe language or behavior which is intended, or said to be intended , to provide a minimum of offense, particularly to racial, cultural, or other identity groups.

Task3:

Political correctness is both a linguistic and social phenomenon. Can you think of social aspects of political correctness and give examples?

Task 4:

Read the text “Political Correctness” and prepare to do the tasks that follow.

Political Correctness

Political correctness (adjectively, politically correct; both forms commonly abbreviated to PC) is a term used to describe language, ideas, politics, or behavior seen as seeking to minimize offense to racial, cultural, or other identity groups. Conversely, the term politically incorrect is used to refer to language or ideas hat may cause offense or that are unconstrained by orthodoxy.

The term itself and its usage are hotly contested. The term “political correctness” is used almost exclusively in a pejorative sense, while “politically incorrect” is used as a self – description, as in the series of “politically incorrect guides,” produced by conservative publisher Regnery.

Some commentators have argued that the term “political correctness” is a straw man invented by conservatives in the 1990s in order to challenge progressive social change, especially with respect to issues of race, religion and gender. Ruth Perry traces the term back to Mao’s little red book. According to Perry, the term was later adopted by the radical left in the 1960s. In the 1990s, because of the term’s association with radical politics and communist censorship, it was used y the political right in the United States to discredit the political left, including liberals and Democrats.

The term “political correctness” is derived from Marxist – Leninist vocabulary, and was used to describe the appropriate “party line.“ Those people who opposed (or were seen as opposing) the “correct line” were often punished.

The term was adopted by some proponents of the US New Left. One example cited by Ruth Perry is in 1990, in Toni Cade Barbara’s essay The Black Woman where she stated,”a man cannot be politically correct and a chauvinist too.” This example illustrates the later usage of the term to focus on gender and identity politics rather than on political orthodoxy in general.

Within a few years, however, the term “political correctness” had been

re – appropriated within the New Left as a form of satirical self-critique. According to Debra Shultz, “Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the New Left, feminists, and progressives…used their term ’politically correct’ ironically, as a guard against their own orthodoxy in social change efforts.” It was in this sense that a popular usage of the phrase in English derived and was employed by Bobby London in his underground comic Merton of the Movement. The alternative term “ideologically sound” followed a similar trajectory and appeared in such works of satire as the comic strips of Bart Dickon.

In an example typical of use within the left, Ellen Willis records that “in the early ‘80s, when feminists used the term ‘political correctness’ it was used to refer sarcastically to the anti – pornography movement’s efforts to define a ‘feminist sexuality’.”

The phrase “politically correct” has become popular in other countries as well, including several Scandinavian countries, Portugal, Spain and Latin America, New Zealand, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and Russia. Although the dominant use is pejorative, a few authors use the term “political correctness” to describe inclusive language or civility, and thus praise language that they see as “politically correct.”

According to Andrews, the practice of using “inclusive’ or “neutral” language is based on the idea that “language represents thought, and may even control thought.” One form of this thesis is the Sapir – Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language’s grammatical categories shape its speaker’s ideas and actions, though Andrews holds that more moderate conceptions of the relation between language and thought are sufficient to support the “reasonable deduction” or “ cultural change via linguistic change.” Other work in cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics also indicates that word –choices can have significant “framing effects” on the perceptions, memories, and attitudes of speakers and hearers. The relevant empirical question is whether these efforts extend to “sexist language” promoting sexist thought.

What critics call political correctness is in some cases defended by advocates as attempt to use non – offensive language? The goal of changing language and terminology consists of several points, including:

*Certain people have their rights, opportunities, or freedoms restricted due to their categorization as members of a group with a derogatory stereotype.

*This categorization is largely implicit and unconscious, and is facilitated by the easy availability of labeling terminology

*By making the labeling terminology problematic, people are made to think consciously about how they describe someone.

*Once labeling is a conscious activity, individual merits of a person, rather than their perceived membership in a group, become more apparent

The situation is complicated by the fact that members of identity groups sometimes embrace terms that others seek to change. For example, deaf culture has always considered the label “Deaf” as an affirming statement of group membership and not insulting or disparaging in any way. The term now often substituted for the term “deaf,” hearing –impaired, was developed to include people with hearing loss due to aging, accidents, and other causes. While more accurate for those uses, the term “hearing – impaired” is considered highly derogatory for many deaf people. The term “Hard of Hearing,” however, is considered an acceptable descriptive term for a limited – to non – hearing person.

A further issue is that terms selected by identity group as more acceptable descriptors will then pass into common use, including use by people whose attitudes are those formerly associated with words which the new terms were designed to supersede. The new terms thus become devalued, and a further set of expressions must be coined. This can give rise to lengthy progressions such as “negro,” ”colored,” : black,” “African – American.”

Critics argue that political correctness implies censorship and endangers free speech by limiting what is in the public discourse, especially in universities and political forums. University of Pennsylvania professor Ala Charles Kors and a lawyer Harvey A. Silverglate connect political correctness to the ideas of Marxist Herbert Marcuse, in particular his claim that liberal ideas of free speech were in fact repressive. They see this “Marcusean logic” as being at the basis of hundreds of college speech codes formulated on American university campus.

Others contend that political correct terms are awkward, euphemistic substitutes for original stark language. They also draw comparisons to George Orwell’s Newspeak.

Several political figures claim that political correctness is a serious movement aiming to change the nature of Western society. Thus, Peter Hitchens wrote in his book The Abolition of Britain, “What Americans describe with casual phrase political correctness is the most intolerant system of thought to dominate the British Isles since the Reformation.”Lind and Buchanan have characterized PC as a technique originated by the Frankfurt School. According to Lind and Buchanan, the work of the Frankfurt School aimed at undermining western values by influencing popular culture through Cultural Marxism. Buchanan says in his book The Death of the West: “Political Correctness is Cultural Marxism, a regime to punish dissent and to stigmatize social heresy as the Inquisition punished religious heresy.”

Some conservative critics of political correctness argue that it is a form of coercion rooted in the assumption that in a political context, power refers to dominion of some men over others, or the human control of human life; by this argument, ultimately, it means force or compulsion. This argument holds that correctness in this context is subjective, and corresponds to the sponsored view of the government, minority, or special interest group that these conservative critics oppose. They claim that by silencing contradiction, their opponents entrench their views as orthodox, and eventually cause it to be accepted as true, as freedom of thought requires the ability to choose between more than one viewpoints. Some conservatives refer to political correctness as “The Scourge of Our Times.”

Opponents of mainstream scientific views on evolution, global warming, passive smoking, AIDS and other issues have claimed that political correctness is responsible for the future of their views to get a fair hearing.

Allegation of political correctness has been directed against the political rights.

During the run – up to the invasion of Iraq, several weeks after their Grammy success the country band the Dixie Chicks performed in concert in London on March 10, 2003, at the Shepherd’s Bush Empire theatre. During this concert, the band gave a monologue to introduce their song Travelin’ Soldier, during which Natalie Maines, a Texas native, was quoted by The Guardian as saying, “Just so you know, we’re ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas.” Though this is the official circulation of the comment, the full text of the statement Natalie Maines made was as follows:” Just so you know, we’re on the good side with y’all. We do not want this war, this violence, and we’re ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas.”

The resulting backlash against the band was described by columnist Don Williams as an example of enforcing politically correct views from the right. Williams wrote, “The ugliest form of political correctness occurs whenever there is a war on. Then you’d better watch what you say. “Williams noted that Ann Coulter and Bill O’Reilly called it treason.

Similar examples include attempts to rename French fries as Freedom Fries and to boycott French wine retaliation for France’s decision to not support the U.S. invasion of Iraq.

(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Task5:

Give answers to the comprehension questions on the text.

1. What does the term “political correctness” mean?

2. How is the term “political incorrect” used to refer to?

3. Where is the term derived from?

4. What is the citation by Ruth Berry given in the article?

5. How are the terms “politically correct” and “ideologically sound” related?

6. Which other countries, besides the United States, has the term become popular in?

7. What is the essence of Sapir – Whorf hypothesis?

8. How do cognitive linguists view political correctness?

9. How do critics of political correctness argue in favor of their views?

10. What is the conservatives’ view on political correctness?

11 .What did Don Williams say about “political correctness”?

Task6:

Look at the list of politically correct terms and their common language equivalents below.

Politically Correct (PC) Terms:

A Criminal - unsavory character

A Crook - morally (ethically) challenged

Alcoholic - anti-sobriety activist

An Immigrant - a newcomer

Assassination - involuntary term limitation

Bald - comb –free

Blind visually challenged

Broken down Automobile mechanically challenged

Broken Home dysfunctional family

Cheating academic dishonesty

China porcelain

Chronically Late temporarily challenged

Computer Illiterate technologically challenged

Crime Rate street activity index

Dead biologically challenged

Deaf visually oriented

Dish Washer utensil sanitizer

Dishonest ethically disoriented

Dorm residence hall

Drug Addict chemically challenged

Earthquake geological correction

Fat horizontally gifted

Fat person of substance

Gang young group

Garbage Man sanitation engineer

Gas Station Attendant petroleum transfer technician

Handicapped differently abled, handy – capable

Homeless outdoor urban dweller

Housewife domestic engineer

Incompetent differently qualified

Insane People mental explorers

Insult emotional rape

Large Nose nasally gifted

Lazy motivationally dispossessed

Mankind humankind

Not with somebody at the moment romantically challenged

Old chronologically gifted

Old Person/Elderly gerontologically advanced

Old Person/Elderly senior citizens

Plagiarism previously owned prose

Policeman, Policewoman law enforcement officer

Poor monetarily challenged

Poor economically unprepared

Prisoner client of the correctional system

Racist genetically discriminating

Rudeness tact avoidance

Shoplifter cost –of – living adjustment specialist

Stupid differently –brained

Thin horizontally challenged

Ugly facially challenged

White American racially challenged

Wrong differently logical

Task 7:

Make up a politically correct story or translate a well – known story into a politically –correct one using the expressions from Task6.

Task 8:

Nowadays we do not use the term “cleaner” and prefer “a cleaning lady” to this. Why do you think people do this? Why do not we say, for instance, “a doctor lady” (mind that “a lady doctor” would mean something very different).

How do you understand the term “sexism”? Think of both linguistic and social aspects.

Task 9:

Read an article from David Crystal’s “The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language” and learn more about sexism in language and gender issues in general

Gender Issues

Some of the most important linguistic changes affecting English since the 1960s have arisen from the way society has come to look differently at the practice and consequences of sexism. There is now a widespread awareness which was lacking a generation ago, of the way in which language covertly displays social attitude towards men and women. The criticism have been mainly directed at the biases built into English vocabulary and grammar which reflect traditional male – oriented views of the world, and which have been interpreted as reinforcing the low status of women in society. All of the main European languages have been affected, but English more than most, because of the early impact of the feminist movement in the U.S.A.

In vocabulary, attention has been focused on the replacement of “make” words with a genetic meaning by neutral items – chairman, for example, becoming chair or chairperson, or salesman becoming sales assistant. In certain cases, such as job descriptions, the use of sexually neutral language has become a legal requirement. There is continuing debate between extremists and moderates as to how far such revisions should go – whether they should affect traditional idioms such as man in street and Neanderthal Man, or apply to parts of words where the male meaning of man is no longer dominant, such as man-handle. The vocabulary of marital status has also been affected – notably in the introduction of MS as a neutral alternative to Miss or Mrs.

In grammar , the focus has been on the lack of sex – neutral singular pronoun in English – a gap which becomes a problem after sex – neutral nouns (such as student) or indefinite pronouns (such as somebody).The difficulty can be seen in the following sentences, where the blanks would traditionally be filled by the pronoun he or his.

If a student loses (….) key, (….) should report the loss to the bursar.

To avoid the male bias, various alternatives have been suggested, but all have their critics. He or she or she or he is sometimes used, but this is often felt to be stylistically awkward. In writing, forms such (s)he can be convenient, but this device does not help with his or him. In informal speech, they is widely spread after such words as anyone, but this usage attracts criticism from those who feel that a plural word should not be made to refer back to a singular one. Many writers therefore choose to recast their sentence structure to avoid the problem, for example by turning the singular noun into a plural (If students lose their key….). A radical solution, so far unsuccessful, is to invent a completely new pronoun to act as a neutral third person.

(David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 1995)

Task 10:

Give the summery of the article. Be sure to name the sexist terms and their neutral equivalents.

Task 11:

See some illustrations of old – fashioned and modern non – sexist languages.

Old –fashioned sexist language Modern non-sexist language

“What does he want?” “What do they want?”

A child needs to feel that he is liked A child needs to feel that he by his friends is liked by friends. Man /mankind are polluting the world. People are /Humanity is /Humankind is

Man is not the only animal that uses tools. Human beings/Humans are

not the only animals……..

This is the largest man – made lake in Europe. This is the largest artificial

lake in Europe.

The teacher must not be late for his classes. Teachers must not be late

for their classes.

A mother should never leave a baby alone in Parents should never leave

the house. babies alone in the

He might hurt himself. house. They might hurt

themselves.

Male words are almost always put before

female words in common combinations.

men and women; brothers and sisters;

husbands and wives; his and her; him and her

a) Ted and Angela are husband and wife.

b) Angela and Tod are wife and husband.

a) I have three girls and two men working

b) I have three women and two men working

for me. .

a) Mr. Lewis and Miss Masters.

b) Ms. Masters and Mr. Lewis

Task12:

Say what you think of sexist and non – sexist languages. Which one is your preference?

Task13:

Render the article in English

Роль женщины в политической жизни Финляндии.

Модель государства всеобщего благосостояния ставит своей целью достичь социального равенства за счет обеспечения граждан обширными социальными правами – в дополнение к правам политическим и гражданским. Эти права в Скандинавских странах институционализированы на более высоком уровне и с большим единообразием, чем где-либо. Социальные права относятся к компетенции социального обеспечения и социальных служб - это касается, к примеру, здравоохранения, образования, детских садов. Для скандинавской модели государства всеобщего благосостояния, по сравнению, например, с английским либо американским “либеральным” обществом, важна роль государства как гаранта социальной защиты. Социальные права понимаются как основное средство достижения цели “равных жизненных шансов”. Равные жизненные шансы соотносятся с проблемой уничтожения классового неравенства и, что очень важно, гендерного неравенства за счет предоставления гражданам универсальных и высококвалифицированных услуг по социальному обеспечению.

Формирование общества всеобщего благосостояния стало фактором способствующим развитию «женского проекта» в Финляндии. Целью «проекта» стало всестороннее развитие женского потенция во всех областях общественной жизни страны. В 60-х годах ХХ века в Финляндии развернулась острая дискуссия о гендерных ролях в обществе. В ходе обсуждений проявилась «северная гендерная модель», направленная на отказ зависимости женщин от мужей, повышение уровня женского образования, широкое распространение работа женщин вне дома.

В этот период финское государство стало «лучшим другом женщины», гарантом политического успеха реформ в обществе. В положении женщины и семьи произошли большие изменения. Женщины стали активно участвовать в трудовой жизни, что в свою очередь повысило участие женщин в политике, в управлении, в работе вузов и в СМИ. На эти годы приходится и формирование современной модель роли женщины в обществе. Идеалом такой роли стало возможность сочетать семью и работу. Со временем это привело к реализации принципов гендерного равноправия в общественных институтах, в политических программах и социальных реформах. Однако, несмотря на определенный прогресс, в оплате труда все еще не достигнуто полного гендерного равноправия.

В конце 90-х годов ХХ века в Финляндии был принят закон о половых квотах при назначениях на выборные должности в муниципальных органах власти. После избирательной реформы 1906 года это была самая значительная реформа, повлиявшая на участие женщин в общественных делах.

В настоящий момент 37% финского парламента (Eduskunta) составляют женщины. В муниципальных парламентах женское представительство - 34%. Из восемнадцати министерских постов женщины занимают семь. В Европарламенте 44% из общего числа наших представителей составляют женщины. Кроме того, в Европейском центральном банке Финляндию также представляет женщина (Сиркка Хэмэлэйнен – Sirkka Hämäläinen). Двое из трёх спикеров парламента – женщины (Риитта Уосукайнен (Riitta Uosukainen) и Сиркка-Лииза Антила (Sirkka-Liisa Anttila). В 2000 г., в первый раз раз за всю историю Финляндии, на пост президента была избрана женщина - Тарья Халонен (Tarja Halonen). Всё это на фоне других стран мира в самом деле выглядит неплохо.

В целом женщины участвуют в политике столь же активно, сколь и мужчины. Одна из причин, по которой женщинам лишь сравнительно недавно удалось пробиться к высоким постам в политике и экономике, кроется в так называемых “братских сетях” (“brotherhood-networks”). Эти неформальные сети мужчин, обладающих властью, традиционно складывались в саунах (ну как же иначе, ведь мы же финны!), где обсуждались важные политические вопросы и принимались решения. Женщины давно жаловались по поводу этих сетей “мужских уз” и братства. Мужские сети и связанная с ними культура сауны дискриминируют женщин, оставляя последних за бортом сферы влияния и доступа к информации. Несмотря на то, что в Финляндии существует формальное гендерное равенство, подобные братские сети являются хорошим примером неуловимых неформальных гендерных практик, конструирующих и воспроизводящих мужское доминирование и гендерное неравенство. Однако со стороны женщин в качестве противодействия последовало учреждение их собственных, “сестринских сетей” с целью повышения статуса женщин в обществе.

Ярким примером того, как различаются репрезентации женщин и мужчин – политиков в средствах массовой информации, является ситуация с действующим президентом страны Тарьей Халонен. Когда президент Халонен совершала свой первый государственный визит в Швецию, средства массовой информации увлеченно обсуждали ее внешность, резко критикуя манеру одеваться, сумочку, отсутствие подходящей к туалету шляпки и т.п. Любопытно, что самая острая критика раздавалась, в том числе со страниц финских женских журналов. В любом случае реальная политическая значимость визита была оттеснена на второй план этой “гардеробной дискуссией”. Очевидно, что вряд ли нечто подобное могло произойти при совершении государственного визита президентом – мужчиной.

У женских движений в Финляндии давние традиции. Первые женские организации возникли уже в конце девятнадцатого столетия. Они были связаны с более широким национально-романтическим и просветительским движением. Как считает Ирма Сулкунен , на развитие женских организаций в Финляндии повлияло “социальное материнство”, т. е., подчёркивание женской материнской роли, подразумевающей заботу о ближних. Даже будучи исключенными из политических властных структур, в которых доминировали мужчины, женщины достаточно рано стали играть активную роль в становлении гражданского общества, создавая свои организации со своими собственными задачами и сферами деятельности. Женская гражданская активность сыграла решающую роль в продвижении реформ социальной политики в начале и середине 1960-х гг.

С 1970-х гг. и далее женские организации в Финляндии сосредоточились на построении государства всеобщего благосостояния, открывая пути для женщин на рынок труда и в политические структуры и предоставляя возможности совмещения работы и семьи. В 1990-х и 2000 году женские организации уделяли особое внимание развитию женских сетей и интернационализации.

Наиболее выдающимися женскими организациями в Финляндии на сегодняшний день являются, к примеру, Союз женщин (учрежденный еще в 1892 г.) и Национальный совет женщин Финляндии. Союз женщин – откровенно феминистская организация, в которой насчитывается около тысячи членов. Союз женщин функционирует как объединение множества независимых женских групп на уровне “корней травы”. Он организует, курсы в форме открытых лекций по феминизму и положению женщин в обществе и поддерживает кризисный центр, который обеспечивает правовую и психологическую поддержку для женщин, переживших домашнее либо сексуальное насилие. В состав Союза женщин входят различные рабочие группы, такие, как “Молодые феминистки”, “Мамы – феминистки”“ и “Женщины за мир”.

(С.Н.Погодин)

Task14:

Read and render the text «Political Correctness в действии»

Political Correctness в действии

Сегодня мы поговорим о «политкорректности» в действии: в чём она проявляется, как подбирают новые способы языкового выражения взамен тех, что задевают чувства и достоинства индивидуума, ущемляют его человеческие права привычной языковой бестактностью и/или прямолинейностью в отношении расовой и половой принадлежности, возраста, состояния здоровья, социального статуса, внешнего вида и т.п.

Движение за ПК началось с африканских пользователей английским языком, возмутившихся негативными коннотациями метафорики слова black (чёрный).Оно немедленно и очень активно было подхвачено феминистскими движениями, боровшимися за права женщин в современном обществе. Вот примеры тех изменений, которым подвергла тенденция к ПК «расистские» слова и словосочетания:

Negro>colored>black>African American>Afro-American

(негр>цветной>чёрный>африканский американец>афроамериканец)

Red Indians > Native Americans

(краснокожие индейцы, > коренные американцы)

Феминистские движения одержали крупные победы на разных уровнях языка и практически во всех вариантах английского языка, начавшись в американском. Так, обращение Ms. по аналогии с Mr. не дискриминирует женщину, поскольку не определяет её как замужнюю(Mrs.) или незамужнюю (Miss).Оно успешно внедрилось в официальный английский, и прокладывает дорогу в разговорный.

«Сексистские» морфемы, указывающие на половую принадлежность человека, вроде суффикса -man, вытесняются из языка вместе со словами, в которые они имели неосторожность войти. Взамен появляются новые, определяющие человека безотносительно к полу.

Chairman > chairperson (председатель)

Spokesman>spokesperson (делегат)

Cameraman >camera operator (оператор)

Foreman > supervisor (начальник)

Fireman >fire fighter (пожарник)

Postman > mail carrier (почтальон)

Businessman > business lady (бизнесмен> бизнес – леди)

Stewardess > flight attendant (стюардесса)

Headmistress > head teacher (директриса)

Не обходится без вариантов поистине курьезных. Так, слово woman можно увидеть написанным как womyn или wimmin – лишь бы только избежать ассоциаций с ненавистным « мужским» суффиксом.

Традиционное употребление местоимений мужского рода (his/ him) в тех случаях, когда пол существительного не указан или неизвестен, практически уже вытеснено новыми способами языкового выражения – или обязательным упоминанием his /her или множественным their: Everyone must do his duty > Everyone must do his/her duty (Everyone must do their duty).

Всё чаще в текстах встречается написание s/he вместо традиционного написания he/she. Ladies, как говорится, first!

Task 15:

Put ten comprehensive questions to the text. Ask your peers to answer them.

Task 16:

As we have touched on the problem of gender issues in language, read the following examples of “The Secret Language of Women”

The Secret Language of Women

When she says: “You’re so sweet to me.” She really means: “I want you to make me a sandwich.”

When she says: “Do you think she is pretty?” She really means: “You deny it, or face a really unpleasant weekend.”

When she says:”Whatever you want is fine, honey.” She really means: “You are doomed .Whatever you choose will be wrong.”

When she says: “I don’t want to talk about it.” She really means:” You had better ask me what is wrong about 50 more times.”

When she says:” You are part of me.” She really means:” I have begun to figure your income into my budget.”

Task 17:

Is it OK to tell jokes about anything and everything? Would any or all of the following offend you? Why?

1. A joke about a physical disabled person

2. A joke that makes fun of women

3. A joke that makes fun of men

4. A joke that makes fun of the elderly

5. A joke that ridicules a particular religion

6. A joke making fun of lawyers

7. A joke that makes fun of blinds

Task 18:

Debates

Organize the debates on the topic: “Political correctness is a linguistic mirage“. Give arguments “for” and “against.” Organize your speech according to speech – making rules.

Unit X.

Language and Nationality

Task1:

How do you understand the concept of “national identity”? To what extend do you think language is a part of it?

Task2:

Read the text and render the context.

Language and Nationality.

Language and nationality were not always so intimately intertwined. Newer in the heyday of rule by sovereign was it a condition of employment that the King be able to speak the language of his subjects. George I spoke no English and spent much of his time away from England, attempting to use the power of his kingship to shore up his German possessions. In the Middle Ages nationalism was not even part of the picture: one owed loyalty to a lord, a prince, a ruler, a farmer, a family, a tribe, a church, a piece of land, but not to a nation and least of all to a nation as a language unit. The capital city of the Austrian Habsburg Empire was Vienna, its ruler a monarch with effective control of peoples of the most varied and incompatible ethnicities, and languages, throughout central and Eastern Europe. The official language and the lingua franca as well, was German. While it stood –and it stood for hundreds of years – the empire was an anachronistic relic of what for most of human history had been the normal relationship between country and language: none.

In 1846 Jacob Grimm, one of the Brothers Grimm of fairy – tale fame but better known in the linguistic establishment as a forerunner of modern comparative and historical linguists, said that “ a nation is the totality of people who speak the same language.” After midcentury, language was invoked more than any other single criterion to define nationality. Language as a political force helped to bring about the unification of Italy and of Germany and the secession of Norway from its union with Sweden in 1905.Arnold Toynbee observed – unhappily - soon after the First World War that “the growing consciousness of Nationality had attached itself neither to traditional frontiers nor to new geographical associations but almost exclusively to mother tongues.”

And so it remains today. In much of the world, ethnic unity and cultural identification are routinely defined by language.to be Arab is to speak Arabic. Bengal identity is based on language in spite of the division of Bengali-speakers between Hindu India and Muslim Bangladesh. When eastern Pakistan seceded from greater Pakistan in 1971, it named itself Bangladesh: desa means “country”, bangla means not the Bengali people or the Bengali territory but the Bengali language.

Language is an explosive issue in the countries of the former Soviet Union. The language conflict in Estonia has been especially bitter. Ethnic Russians make up almost a third of Estonia’s population, and most of them do not speak or read Estonian, although Russians have lived in Estonia for more than a generation. Estonia has passed legislation requiring knowledge of the Estonian language as a condition of citizenship. Nationalist groups in independent Lithuania sought restrictions on the use of Polish – again, old sins, long shadows.

Unique Otherness

Is there no hope for language tolerance? Some countries manage to maintain their unity in the face of multilingualism. Examples are Finland, with a Swedish minority, and a number of African and Southeast Asian countries. Two others could not be more unlike as countries go: Switzerland and India.

German, French, Italian, and Romansh are the languages of Switzerland. The first three can be and are used for official purposes; all four are designated “national” languages. Switzerland is politically almost hyper stable. It has language problems (Romansh is losing ground), but they are never allowed to threaten national unity.

Contrary to public perception, India gets along pretty well with a host of different languages. The Indian constitution officially recognizes nineteen languages, English among them. Hindi is specified in the constitution as the national language of India, but that is a pious postcolonial fiction: outside the Hindi-speaking northern heartland of India, people don’t want to learn it. English functions more nearly than Hindi as India’s lingua franca.

From 1947, when India obtained its independence from the British, until the 1960s blood ran in the streets and people died because of language. Hindi absolutes wanted to force Hindi on the entire country, which would have split India between north and south and opened up other fracture lines as well. For as long as possible Jawaharlal Nehru, independent India’s first Prime Minister, resisted nationalist demands to redraw the capricious state boundaries of British India according to language. By the time he capitulated, the country had gained a precious decade to prove its viability as a union.

Why is it that India preserves its unity with not just two languages to contend with, as Belgium, Canada, and Sri Lanka have, but nineteen? The answer is that India, like Switzerland, has a strong national identity. The two countries share something big and almost mystical that holds each together in a union transcending language. That something I call “unique otherness.”

(Robert D. King. Should English Be the Law?)

Task3:

Learn the vocabulary from the text. Give the Russian equivalents.

Intertwined

Subjects

Incompatible ethnicities

Rule by sovereign

The growing consciousness of nationality

Frontiers

Mother tongue

Ethnic unity

Cultural identification

Explosive issue

Restrictions

Language tolerance

Multilingualism

Politically hyper stable

National unity

Public as a nation

Task4:

There are some key words in the text that need more thorough acquaintance. Learn more about them.

1) Nationality -1.state of belonging to a particular country, because you were born there or because you have been legally accepted as belonging to it; 2.a group of people who have the same racial origins, especially when they do not have their own independent country.

Collocations

Various nationalities dual nationality

Mixed nationality foreign nationality

Minority nationality take nationality

Have nationality inherit nationality

Acquire nationality change nationality

Adopt nationality give up nationality

Assume nationality grant smb. nationality

Obtain nationality on the grounds of nationality

2)Nationalism-1.a desire for the political independence of your own nation; 2.love of your nation, which is often associated with the belief that your nation is better than any other; sometimes used showing disapproval.

Derivatives: nationalist; nationalistic.

Collocations:

Aggressive nationalism cultural nationalism

Extreme nationalism economic nationalism

Fierce nationalism political nationalism

Militant nationalism racial nationalism

Revolutionary nationalism the growth of nationalism

Popular nationalism revival of nationalism

Conservative nationalism the rise of nationalism

Radical nationalism a tide of nationalism

Task5:

Give Russian equivalents of the following

1. British nationality

2. I want him to have dual nationality

3. Discussion has taken place among scientists of different nationalities

4. The nationalities inhabiting Tsarist Russia

5. European nationalities struggling for cultural and political autonomy

6. Teams of mixed nationalities

7. A tide of militant nationalism.

8. Chauvinistic nationalism and ethic prejudice

Task 6:

Give answers to the questions on the text

1. Did all the English kings speak English? Who didn’t?

2. What does the term “linqua franca” mean?

3. How is Jacob Grimm known?

4. How does Grimm define the concept of “nation”?

5. What is the language situation in modern Estonia?

6. How many languages are spoken in Switzerland? What is the linguistic situation there?

7. How about India?

8. Why is it the fact that India preserves its unity with nineteen languages?

9. How does the author understand the concept of “unique otherness”?

Task 7: Debates

“Everybody should learn and speak their native language.” Do you agree? Give arguments and counter – arguments.

Unit XI.

Body Language in Politics

Task1:

Think and say how important gestures, manners and body language in general are for creating an image of a person.

Task2:

Ask your classmates to show some gestures so that the rest of the class guess their meanings.

Task 3:

To what extend gestures and manners culturally determined? Can you think of examples?

Task4:

Imitate the following actions; learn the vocabulary you do not know.

1. Lick your lips

2. Smile

3. Grin

4. Stare at the classmates

5. Peer at them

6. Frown

7. Scowl

8. Wink at a classmate

9. Pout

10. Raise your eyebrows.

11. Point at a classmate.

12. Shrug your shoulders.

13. Make a face.

14. Nod.

15. Stake your head.

16. Blow smb. a kiss.

17. Sneer

18. Beckon to smb.

19. Poke your tongue out at smb.

20. Scratch your head.

21. Wave goodbye.

Task5:

Check that you know the meaning of each of the verbs below. They all describe different way of looking. Then choose the appropriate verb to complete each sentence.

Glanced gazed peered peeped stared

1. He……intently at the piece of paper in front of him, wringing his hands in despair.

2. He stretched to his full height and….over the wall to see what Lady Thackeray-Smyth’s daughter was doing.

3. We…..through the fog, blinking, trying to catch a glimpse of a moving light…

4. She stopped fidgeting and fiddling with her dresses. She just sat, absolutely still, and….out of the window, miles away, just occasionally pursing her lips, and then biting them hard.

5. The referee….at his watch again, made a sign to the linesman, and then blew the final whistle.

Task 6:

The verbs below are in the wrong order. Decide which to use to complete each of the sentences 1-6.

Shook hands with sat cuddling squeezed embraced hugged kissed

1. The freed hostages………their family and friends.

2. The US President………the Prime Minister.

3. I……my mother – in – law on the cheek.

4. Charles……her hand reassuringly as they stepped forward together to the altar.

5. The Pope…..at the President.

6. Jack and Jill…..each other to keep warm.

Task7:

Read the text “Body Language in American Politics”. Prepare to do the tasks that follow.

Body Language in American Politics

Body language plays a big part in all communication. We can hardly say anything without expressing more through the movements of our faces and bodies. It is no wonder, then, that body language has been displayed in American politics.

When George Washington crossed the Delaware, according to famous painting, he was showing a body language of confidence. He did this by standing erect with hands on hips. There is evidence of the same stance by Woodrow Wilson during a time when he was lecturing at a university and by Walter Mondale during his presidential campaign.

Many presidents and presidential hopefuls have shown body language signs of confidence and dominance. In the 1992 presidential debates, much of this was going on. Former President Bill Clinton, Rose Perot, and former President George bush were all showing a palm down gesture that symbolized belief in superiority.

Another nonverbal cue of body language is a way you tilt your head back and hold it there. This has shown up in the speeches by Mussolini, Roosevelt, George Wallace, and even Al Gore. It symbolizes a feeling of being disdainful, arrogant, and superior.

Sometimes, body language shows how uncomfortable a politician is. In 1988, former Vice President Dan Quayle was speaking in a television debate. His opponent came out with a rather cutting remark, and Quayle’s response was an immediate, “Adam’s apple jump.” This is a classic sign of nervousness.

The angle that you put yourself in relationship to others is part of body language. Former President Richard Nixon was known for being uncomfortable around people. This was shown in the way he set himself at a ninety degree angle to others he was dealing with.

Much has been made of a 1998 Time magazine cover photo. It shows Jessie Jackson, who was making a run for president at the time. He is standing with his arms crossed in front of his chest. Some say this is a classic defensive pose. This may or may not be a correct interpretation of his body language.

A tense, pouting mouth can show uncertainty, frustration, and sadness. Photos were taken of former President Bill Clinton during the Monica Lewinsky ordeal. In them he is often displaying such a form of body language.

Former President Ronald Reagan and the Russian leader Mikhail Gorbachev had important matters to discuss at summit. There were times when they didn’t agree. However, when they did agree, their body language showed it. At such times, they face each other. They would also sit in similar positions.

A Republican pollster, R.Teeter, did an experiment about body language in politics. He showed people visual footage of political campaigning. They were doing their usual speech-making, hand shaking, and the rest. There is no sound, only video.

As it turned out, those who had only the body language of the candidates to read rated them the same way as those who knew their politics and views. It was shown that a lot is determined about choice of candidate by body language alone. Body language has played a part in American politics and will continue to do so. As long as Americans can see who they are voting for, they will watch as much as they will listen. Thanks to body language, leaders are easier to judge.

Task 8:

Answer the questions based on the text

.

1. What is the role of body language in communication?

2. How was George Washington shown when crossing the Delaware?

3. Who was showing the palm down gesture and what did it symbolize?

4. What does tilting your head back and holding it there symbolize?

5. Which politicians were known for this gesture?

6 What does “Adam’s apple jump “mean and what does it signify?

7. How do you interpret” standing with your arms crossed in front of your chest”?

8. What does pouting mouth show?

9. What did body language reveal about Ronal Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev’s relationships?

10. Are leaders easier to judge thanks to body language? Prove it.

Task 9:

President Ronald Reagan was known to be a successful body language master. Do you think this was due to the fact that he was a former Hollywood actor? If so, then to what extend did this fact contribute to his success?

Task 10:

In history there is a famous Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev’s “shoe banging incident” in the United Nations. This was received by public as a note of cold war between the USSR and the USA. What do you think of this? Give your comments.

Task 11:

.

Think of a modern politician – Russian or foreign. Choose the one most to your liking. How successful do you think he is or she is with using their body language?

Task 12:

Give a 3-5 minutes presentation on the topic “Public Speaking and Body Language”.

Task 13:

Match the following verbs to part of the body.

a) clap 1)your head

b) clench 2)your fingers

c) crook 3)your thumbs

d) cup 4)your fist

e) bow 5)your hand

f) shrug 6)your finger

g) cross 7)your face

h) screw up 8)your hands

i) twiddle 9)your shoulders

Try to do the exercise independently. If you have problems, see the answers:

A8, b4, c6, d5, e1, f9, g2, h7, i3.

Task 14:

The following nouns can be used metaphorically as part of certain compound adjectives. Complete the sentences below with suitable word from the list. The first one has been done for you.

Heart finger head face first skin

1. Although he is quite famous now, he has not become big-headed at all.

2. You would have to be very thick -…… to ignore so much criticism.

3. Take care of your belongings. There are some light-….people around.

4. I don’t think my father would be hard-….enough to punish me.

5. Don’t bother asking him for any money. He is extremely tight-…

6. I trusted you! How could you have been so two-….with me?

Task 15:

Here is a list of vocabulary showing what your body does. Learn the words and translate the sentences into Russian.

Sigh: She sighed with relief when she heard her plane had landed safely.

Blink: She blinked several times to try and get the dust out of her eye.

Wink: He winked at me across the room to try and make me laugh.

Frown: Why are you frowning? What is the problem?

Grin: She was so delightful with the present that she grinned from ear to ear.

Blush: He blushed with embarrassment when she smiled at him.

Perspire/Sweat: When it is hot you swear/perspire.

Tremble: My hands tremble when I’ve been drinking too much coffee.

Shiver: Look at him. He is so cold that he is shivering.

Shake: She laughed so much that her whole body shook.

Task 16:

Find the words from those given above to match the dictionary definitions given below.

1. to draw the eyebrows together to express displeasure or puzzlement

2. to go pink from embarrassment

3. to tremble, especially from cold or fear

4. to shut and open both eyes quickly

5. to deliberately shut and open one eye.

Task 17:

Learn some idioms describing and showing feelings and mood:

1. He had a face as long as a fiddle. (looked very depressed, sad)

2. She certainly looked down in the dumps. (looked depressed, sad)

3. Gerry is in a black mood.(a bad mood, temper)

4. Mark was like a bear with a sore head. (extremely irritated)

5. Jo’s as happy as the day is long. (extremely content)

6. Mary seems to be on cloud nine these days. (extremely pleased/happy)

7. Everyone seemed to be in high spirits. (lively, enjoying things)

8. She seems to be keeping her chin up. (happy despite bad things)

9. We were all shaking in our shoes. (trembling with fear)

Task 18:

Read the text “Some Common Body Language Signals.” And ask ten comprehension questions on the text. Ask your peer to give answers.

Some Common Body Language Signals

Everyone is constantly sending nonverbal information to the world through body language. It has been shown that even people blind from birth exhibit complex expressions of body language. Since it is so much a part of the human condition, it is important to know at least a little of this language.

Body language tells others how you feel. If you walk briskly and erect, you exude confidence. If you sit back with your hands behind your head and your legs crossed, it can mean confidence too. However, it can also mean that you feel superior or are arrogant.

Many different body language cues point to a lack of self- confidence. If you are patting your hair or playing with it, you seem self-assured. Most people see nail-biting as a nervous behavior. Yet, you can also suggest a feeling of inferiority.

Body language can help a person to tell if you are interested or bored. If you are bored, you might sit with your legs crossed and you might kick one leg slightly. You could rest your head in you to the r hands and look down. This body language would make you appeal bored.

Your body language can show others if you are thinking. If you hold your hand to your cheek you might be evaluating a situation. If you pinch the bridge of your nose with your eyes closed you might feel a negative evaluation. Making a decision might come when you are stroking your chin. Indecision could be shown by your body language when you tug at an ear.

If you stand with your hands on your hips, your body language indicates that you are at the ready, and maybe even aggressive. If you steeple your fingers, you are showing the body language of authority. If you show an open palm, you are signaling sincerity and openness. Sit with your legs apart and you will also show that you are open and relaxed.

If you are lying, be aware that you will probably show it with your body language. You will most likely rub or touch your nose. You can hardly help it because lying causes blood to rush there. You will also tend to look up and to the right. This body language corresponds to thinking about the future, which you are doing as you think up you lie.

Doubt or disbelief can be shown through your body language as well. You might find yourself rubbing your eye as if you can’t believe what you’re seeing. You might also turn your head completely away, or even look down, as if you want no part of this tale.

Learning what you do in displaying body language can be very important to you. It can keep you from leaving a bad impression. It can help you to get a point across. Even more than that, it is wise to be aware of the same behaviors in other people. Their body language can alert you to problems before any words can ever come close.

Task 19:

Prepare a 3-5 minute summery of the text

Task 20:

Write a comparison – contrast essay comparing two contemporary politicians opposite in their behavioral styles.

Task 21:

Prepare a speech to be made in class on any topic you like, preferably political. While preparing, work over your body language.

Unit XII.

Elections

Task 1:

Read the article and look up the meaning of unknown words and phrases in the dictionary.

Kenyans to elect leader in December

Kenya will hold general elections at the end of December to elect a successor to the president, who has ruled the country for 24 years.

“The elections will be at the end of December,” said the president, who will not be eligible to run under new electoral rules introduced in 2007 that prohibit the head of state from serving more than two five-year terms. He gave no precise date for the elections.

Task 2:

Give Russian equivalents of the following words and phrases

Eligible; to run; to rule the country; under new rules; to hold general elections; a five-year term; to elect; a successor.

Task 3:

Give English equivalents of the following words and phrases. Reproduce the sentences from the article with them.

Пятилетний срок; проводить всеобщие выборы; преемник; имеющий право избираться; выбирать; управлять страной; по новым правилам

Task 4:

Complete the following statements using the active vocabulary.

1)…..at the end of December.

2) Kenya will elect a successor to the president, who……

3)….under the new electoral rules.

4) The new electoral rules prohibit…

Task 5:

Read the article and look up the meanings of the unknown words and phrases in the dictionary.