Английский язык. Язык политики

English Language. The Language of Politics.

(English Language for the students of “International Relations” Department)

Ask not what your country can do for you-

Ask what you can do for your country.

John F. Kennedy

English is the language the sun never sets on.

Randolph Quirk

Task1:

Give answers to the following questionnaire. If you say “yes” to the first question give as much information as you can dealing with the second half. Compare your answers with these of your classmates.

1. Do you have any English-speaking friends? Where from?

2. Do you know any nice places for meeting English –speaking people? Where?

3. Have you ever written a letter to someone in English? Who to? Why?

4. Have you ever been to an English-speaking country? Which one? When?

5. Have you seen a film in English this year? Which one?

6. Have you read a book, a magazine or a newspaper in English this year? Which one?

7. Have you seen a TV program in English this year? Which one?

8 Have you got a favorite song in English? Which one?

9. Why are you learning English?

10. What do you like about learning English?

11. What do you dislike about learning English?

Unit 1.

Some steps to improving your academic and political writing

Enriching your vocabulary.

Those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it”

George Santayana

A. Reflection

Look at the following groups of words, which are considered synonyms.

What is the difference between the words in each group?

1. colleague; mate; acquaintance; comrade; ally

2. handicapped; crippled; person with a disability; disabled; differently abled

3. sick; under the weather; ailing; nauseous

B. Contextualization

Read through these sentences, each of which includes a synonym for the word research.

In each case, identify the problem with the synonym the student has chosen.

Sentence

Stoddart’s investigation into the matter was extremely thorough.

Problem/ Reason………………………………………………….

The 2004 forensic analysis by Sowton is considered the first major paper on the subject.

Problem/Reason…………………………………………………………

Her legwork into this topic is extremely detailed and accurate.

Problem/Reason………………………………………………………….

The seek was generously well – received, although some criticize its methodology.

Problem/Reason…………………………………………………………………

It was an extremely successful piece of study which sent shockwaves through the establishment.

Problem/Reason…………………………………………………………………

Thein’s exploration of the topic was particularly interesting.

Problem/Reason………………………………………………………………….

What strategies can increase your range of language?

Strategy1: Using synonyms. “Synonym does not mean ‘having exactly the same meaning’ but ‘having a similar meaning’. This difference is extremely important. Although words may have the same denotation (core meaning) they will almost certainly have a different connotation (secondary, suggested or implied meaning) For example all these words have the same denotation, i.e., friend, but the connotation is very different:

-colleague: ‘someone who you work with’

-male: informal term for ‘friend’

-acquaintance: ‘someone you have met (often a “friend of a friend”) but do not know that well

-comrade: ‘a member of he same communist or socialist political party; fellow-soldier’

-ally: ‘a country that has agreed to help another country, especially in a war; a person who supports someone in a difficult situating, especially a politician’

A similar pattern may be seen for the other synonyms. When deciding how similar one word is to another, there are four criteria which should be considered.

1. Context: when and with whom you would use the word, e.g., is it a word in general use or is it a piece of jargon.

Investigation: suggests a piece of work done by the police

2. Formality: is he word formal or informal?

Legwork: this is quite informal and more appropriate in a spoken context.

Forensic analysis: conversely, this is too formal for the context.

3. Value judgment: does the word have any bias or additional meaning (e.g., criticism)?

Exploration: whereas research is a neutral word, exploration is more positive in tone.

4. Collocation: are there any particular words which go together to consider?

Piece of study: although study and research have the same meanings, study does not collocate with piece of.

In addition, a common mistake is to substitute a word with one from the wrong word class. Research, for example, is both a noun and a verb.

What resources can help you acquire new language?

English-only dictionary

Advantages: Reading the definition of a word in context (and in the target language), makes it more likely to be remembered in future.

Disadvantages: Definitions can be difficult to understand; it is not always clear what you need to look up.

Electronic/online dictionaries

Advantages: They are quick and easy to use

Disadvantages: Students can become over reliant on them. They may also simply insert the longest/most complicated word they find, rather than the word which is most appropriate.

Online corpora

Advantages: Can help you to see if the word is commonly used in academic or political English.

Disadvantages: Can be challenging to use if you are unfamiliar with them.

Activation

Using some of the strategies, rewrite the following passage using less repetition of the same language

Reusing identical language in academic writing is considered bad style by most academics. Reading identical language gives the impression that your knowledge of subject is also poor, whereas you might actually know quite a lot. A range of language will make your academic writing sound more professional and interesting.

How can you avoid using vague and unnecessary words?

“Good prose is like a window pane”

George Orwell

Reflection

Look at these statements and decide if you agree or disagree.

1 I think that longer phrases sound more ‘academic’.

2. I use lots of extra words in order to reach the word count.

3. I often translate phrases into English word-for-word.

4. Sometimes I do not know the word I need, so I use a vague word instead (e.g., thing).

Contextualization

Read through the following passage and underline any language you think is vague or unnecessary.

Rewrite the passage accordingly

Thus, with regard to introduction, the general consensus of opinion is that a number of factors have to be concluded. Questions still remain, as to what the appropriate length of an introduction should be. Yet, taking all this into account, despite the fact that students are often able to use language well, until such a point in time as they are able to avoid using an excessive number of words, they will in no way be able to write good introduction.

Thus, regarding introductions

What common redundancies and tautologies exist in academic English?

Redundancy Improved version Tautology Improved version

Ahead of schedule early a total of three reasons three reasons

Almost all most, the majority brief in duration brief

Along the lines of similar to completely destroyed destroyed

As well as also, and current status status

At all times always end result result

Conduct a review of review first began began

Give consideration to consider mutual agreement agreement

In advance of before potentially dangerous dangerous

In possession of have/has shorter in length shorter

Is able to can true fact fact

With a view to for usual habit habit

Activation

Rewrite the following piece of text, removing any vague or redundant language.

Following the completion of their first draft, overseas students from abroad often choose not to recognize the fact that their essay is in possession of an excessive number of words. For many, their usual habit is to avoid carrying out an evaluation of their work. The honest truth of the matter is that the majority of students do not proofread properly. Proofreading, on most occasions, is too brief in duration. Students do not want to edit their work in case they need to make their essay longer in length.

What are collocations and how can we use them?

“You shall know the word by the company it keeps”

John Firth

Reflection

Look at these pairs of words. Circle the phrase which you think is most commonly used in English.

-fast car/quick car -fully recognize/completely recognize

-fast shower/quick shower -fully broken/completely broken

-smoke fatly/ smoke heavily -cause problems/provide problems

-make homework/do homework -have a job/work a job

The word education has many collocations. Think of as many as you can.

Contextualization

Read the following passage, identify any collocations and complete the table.

Collocations are particularly useful in academic English, and indeed when students are taught abut the topic, their interest levels are generally high. At least, this is what the research indicates. Reading critically is a good way of developing your understanding of collocations. One of the key criteria in using collocations is identifying the frequency with which they appear together.

Verb + noun

Verb + adverb

Noun + verb

Noun +noun

Adjective + noun

Adverb+ adverb

Adverb+ adjective particularly useful

Note It is important to distinguish academic or political collocations from idioms. Idioms (such as up to the minute or figure something out) tend to be more informal, and therefore are not much used in academic English. Phrasal verbs may also be categorized as collocations, but these are generally considered too informal for academic or political writing as well.

The following table provides a list of useful collocations used generally in academic language

Verb + noun

-develop + an understanding/a framework/ a plan

-do business/an experiment/ homework

-find an answer/a solution/time

-follow advice/an example/a procedure

- give a definition/a description/an explanation

- make an attempt/ a criticism/a reference/an effort

- reach an agreement/a conclusion/a decision

-submit an application/an essay/your resignation

-take an opportunity

Noun + verb Adjective + noun

-the research indicates/shows/demonstrates -key criteria/reason/idea

-X’s argument illustrates/ justifies/supports -major problem/ issue/ challenge

-the figure shows/reveals -detailed /in-depth/ground-breaking

Adverb+ adverb research

-specific argument/reason

-much more /less -present/current study

-almost certainly/entirely -previous studies

-very interestingly/importantly/noticeably -significant differences

Adverb+ adjective Noun+ noun

• particularly useful/challenging/ important - sample size

• -significantly higher/ different/changed -data set

• relatively interesting/important/high -control group

-quality assurance/control

Verb + adverb

-reading critically/carefully/with interest

-strongly suggest/argue

-dramatically increase/ change

-fundamentally change/disagree

-recently develop/arrive/start

Activation

Using a collocation dictionary and/or the corpus-based collocation website

http://www.collins.co.uk/Corpus/CorpusSearch.aspx, identify which words collocate with the following; and in what order.

Word Collocates

Development (D) noun economic D, early D, rapid D, industrial D,

child D, language D, research and D,

D grant, facilitate D.

Significant ( adjective)

Completely (adverb)

Confidence (noun)

Indicate

(verb)

What phrases are commonly used in academic writing?

”After people have repeated a phrase a great number of times,

they begin to realize it has meaning.”

H.G.Wells

In what circumstances would you use the following phrases in academic writing?

1. The structure of the: Description (e.g., the structure of the double helix is as follows)

2. The role of the: --------------------------------------------------------3. One of the most: --------------------------------------------------------

4 At the beginning of: --------------------------------------------------------

5. In contrast to: -------------------------------------------------------6.In the second section: ---------------------------------------------------------

Contextualization

Read the following passage and identify any academic phrases which are frequently used in academic writing. An academic phrase may be defined as a group f three, four or five words which often appear together. They may be considered as a kind of collocation.

Academic phrases, also known as’ lexical bundles’, are an important feature of academic discourse. One of he most important reasons that you should use these short, formulaic phrases is that they are a common feature of academic writing. As well as this, academic phrases can lessen certain grammatical problems which you might face. It should be noted that academic phrases are not a complete solution to grammatical problems; at the same time, they may offer a partial solution. As a result, it is clear hat a god understanding of these three-, four-and five-word phrases is one of the key ways you can make your writing sound more ‘academic’.

Common lexical bundles

Three-word Four-word Five-word

In order to on the other hand on the other hand the

In terms of at the same time at the end of the

One of the in the case of it should be noted that

The use of the end of the it can be seen that

As well as as well as the due to the fact

The number of at the end of at the beginning of the

Due to the in terms of the may be due to the

On the other on the basis of it was found that

Based on the in the present study to the fact that the

The other hand is one of the there are a number of

In this study in he form of in the case of the

A number of the nature of the as a result of the

The fact that the results of the at the same time

Most of the the fact that the is one of the most

There is a as a result of it is possible that the

According to the in relation to the one of the most important

The present study at the beginning of play an important role in

Part of the with respect to the can be seen as a /the

The end of the other hand the the results of this study

The relations between the relations between the from the point of view

In the following in the context of the point of view of

The role of can be used to it can be observed that

Some of the to the fact that this may be due to

As a result as shown in figure an important role in the

It can be it was fund that in the form of a

Activation

Complete these sentences using a suitable academic phrase.

1. Ranke came to his conclusion------------------------------------earlier research.

2. It thereby recognizes-------------------psychology in determining the origins of social behavior.

3. This could also be linked to--------------------------many have a lack of language skills and familiarity with British institutions.

4. The gradual increase before the peak is----------------the general effect of increasing temperature.

5.-------------------------books of the Enlightenment era was undoubtedly Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations.

6. Theory of International Politics was written by Waltz-----------------the pluralist challenge to classical realism.

How do we write a good abstract?

“To make abstract that which is concrete.”

Siegfried Sassoon

1. Reflection

Answer the following questions abut abstracts:

• When doing research for essays, why do you read abstracts?

• How long should an abstract be?

• What is the difference between an abstract and an introduction?

• At which stage of the writing process should you write your abstract?

2. Contextualization

Read the following abstract, written for an essay entitled “What are the characteristics of good abstracts?”

Define the abstract on sections and identify the purpose of each section.

Abstracts are a key component of academic writing, a window t potential reader. This said, many students find it difficult t write a god abstract. This paper argues that there are main reasons for this: they do not understand what the key aspects of a good abstract are, and they do not know the strategies which can be used t write one. In response to this situation, this paper analyzed 500 abstracts from a range of different academic sources and surveyed 1.000 students. From the former, a list of important, recurring components was identified; from the latter, quantitative and qualitative data provided insight into students’ levels of understanding. From this research, two main findings emerge: students need greater exposure to abstracts throughout studies and they require more training in writing them.

Keywords: academic writing, abstracts, essay structure, concise language

.

What is a good abstract?

In simple terms, an abstract is a short passage, which appears at the beginning of your essay, usually after the title. The primary function of an abstract is to be a “shop-window”- to provide the reader (or the potential reader) with an overview of the piece of writing, that follows, and to indicate the key characteristics.

At the student level, abstracts are generally associated with longer pieces of writing, namely dissertations and theses. Additionally, professionally written academic articles will always have an abstract, which you can use to decide whether or not the article is relevant for your own writing. There is no specific length for an abstract. Very often, they will be 100-150 words, and an abstract for a paper given at conference may also be 50-80 words.

Three top tips for writing abstracts:

• Does it sell your essay? If you read the abstract, would you want to read the essay?

• While the abstract at the very end, when you know the exact scope of your essay.

• Be patient-the abstract is not easy to write. It has many different functions and has to be extremely well-written. It will take time to do this.

What are the key “structural” aspects of an abstract? The following numbers refer to the order of abstract sections presented on the previous page.

1. Establish the context of the research.

Abstracts are a key component of academic writing, a window to potential readers. Many students find it difficult to write a good abstract.

2. Establish the topic of the research/research problem.

. This paper argues that there are main reasons for this: the students do not understand what the key aspects of a good abstract are, and they do not know the strategies which can be used to write one.

3. Indicate the methodology

In response to this situation, this paper analyzed 500 abstracts from a range of different academic sources and surveyed 1.000 students

4. Present the main findings

From the former, a list of important, recurring components was identified; from the latter, quantitative and qualitative data provided insight into students’ levels of understanding.

5. Indicate the conclusion

From this research, two main findings emerge: students need greater exposure to abstracts throughout studies and they require more training in writing them.

6. Keywords

Academic writing, abstracts, essay structure, concise language

If your essay can be searched by means of online database, toy will be required to put in keywords, which will help potential readers narrow the search. You must therefore choose those words which most accurately and powerfully encapsulate your essay.

Language.

As the abstract needs to give a lot of information in few words, the language used must be clear, concise and direct. To ensure this, it is important to use powerful content words as far as possible.

Grammar.

Use the present simple to introduce the topic and describe results and conclusions.

• From the research two main findings emerge……

Use the past simple (often in the passive voice) to describe research methodology and results

• …..this paper analyzed 500 abstracts from a range of different academic sources…

Style

The abstract should be short, powerful, but grammatically correct sentences tend to be common.

Good cohesion and linking between sentences is critical. References may be included if relevant.

Audience

You want to encourage people to read your essay, but at the same time to sound professional. You should judge the content and the language you use accordingly.

Format.

Usually abstract are written as one paragraph and appear in a slightly smaller font than the rest of the essay.

Common problems associated with abstracts

Problem 1: The abstract is too long/overly detailed.

Solution: focus on key points; write in more concise way; delete unnecessary words

Problem 2: The abstract is poorly written/not well edited.

Solution: Better time-management skills; include writing the abstract tin your overall planning

Problem3: The abstract sounds like the introduction

Solution: Be clear about the specific purpose/function of each.

Problem 4: The abstract misjudges its audience.

Solution: Write in a style appropriate for the average or”median” reader

Activation

Below are two ‘first drafts’ for the abstract which appears on in part B. In each case identify five problems.

Abstract 1.

An abstract is a short piece of writing which goes at the beginning of an academic essay in order to give an overview of the most points. Two main findings emerge from the study: students need greater exposure to abstracts throughout their studies and they require more training in writing them. This essay analyzed lots of abstracts from many different sources. It discovers that students have problems in understanding the key components of an abstract, and that they require skills development.

Problems with abstract 1

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Abstract 2.

‘Abstracts are easily accessible on line and are useful as miniaturized texts, providing a rich source of characteristic patterns of text organization and language.’

Abstracts are a really important bit of academic writing which appear at the beginning of a piece of academic writing and which, in this essay, are analyzed from 500 different students and from the responses of 1.000 students.

Problems with abstract 2.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

E. Personalization

Write an abstract for the last essay which you wrote, following the procedure outlined previously.

What final checks do I need to make?

“I have made this letter longer only because I have not had time to make it shorter”

Blaise Pascal

The following terms represent important final checks or useful strategies which can be used before submitting your essay.

What final checks do you need to make before submission?

Abbreviations (If you have included any abbreviations, have you explained what they refer to?)

Bibliography and citations (Can all the texts you mention in your references be found in the essay as citations? Can all the work you quote in-text be found in your references?

Deadline Are you sure when the deadline for the essay is? (the penalties can be severe)

Extension Do you need to request an extension for any reason?( illness, personal reasons)

Font Have you used the correct font for your essay?

Gauging your audience Have you judged your audience correctly?

Hook Does your essay engage your reader from the beginning? Is there a “hook” in the introduction?

Idiosyncrasies Have you checked the essay for your “personal” mistakes?

Jargon Have you used any unnecessary jargon?

Keeping the reader interested Is there any part of the essay where the reader might become less interested?

Labeling Are all your graphs, charts and tables labeled appropriately and clearly?

Mother-tongue interference Have you identified and corrected all those issues which are the result of mother-tongue interference?

Number of copies How many copies of your essay do you have to submit?

Official information Have you included all relevant details-e.g., course name/module-which are officially required?

Page numbers Have you included these?

Question Have you answered it properly?

Reliability Have you used reliable and authoritative sources?

Sources Have you sourced the information which you need to?

Type of English You can use either British English or American English. The most important thin is not to mix two forms.

Unnecessary slips Is there any unnecessary vague language used?

Word count (Have you written the appropriate number of words?)

X-rated language Have you used any language which is more commonly used, for example, in e-mails or text messages?

Your voice Is your “voice” clear in the essay? It is important that your own opinion is clear as well.

What critical thinking skills do we need to develop?

“There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so.”

William Shakespeare (Hamlet Act2, Scene 2)

Which of these three definitions of ‘critical thinking’ do you think is important?

1. Critical thinking means what experts have said and presenting a general summary of their ideas.

2. Critical thinking means saying that everything you read is wrong

3. Critical thinking means not being afraid to challenge what experts have said, and using this as a way of shaping your own view abut t topic.

Contextualization

Look at these two pieces of writing below. The first is purely descriptive (i.e. it only summarizes what other people have said, offering no authorial opinion), whereas the second is more analytical

1. Descriptive writing

Fisher and Scriven describe critical thinking as ‘a skilled, active interpretation and evaluation of observations, communications, information, and argumentation’ (1997:20). Russel states that ‘the intelligent are full f doubt’ (2000; 101) argue that without scrutiny, the following type of texts would be common:’ intellectually dishonest (e.g., in the use of data), intolerant (e.g., of opposing ideas), inattentive (e.g., to implications of proposals), haphazard (e.g., procedurally), mistrustful of reason(e.g., hostile toward sound scientific inquiry), indifferent (e.g., toward new findings), and simplistic(e.g., natively dualistic).’Orwell has the following attributed to him:’ During times of universal deceit, telling the truth becomes a revolutionary act.’

2. Analytical writing

Critical thinking is a notoriously difficult term to define, although Fisher and Scriven’s classification of it as ‘a skilled, active interpretation and evaluating of observations, communications, information, and argumentation’ (1997:20) captures many of its essential details. Echoing Russell’s truism that ‘the intelligent are full of doubt’ (1998:28), Facione et al. (2000:101) argue that without this doubt, academic study would allow biased, prejudiced and illogical texts to not be scrutinized properly. Although the saying attributed to Orwell that ‘during times of universal deceit, telling the truth becomes a revolutionary act’ may be little to political for academic context, the idea is still a strong one.

References

Facione, P., Facione, N. and Giancarlo, C. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Character, measurement, and relationship t critical thinking. Informal Logic, 20, 1: 61-84.

Fisher,A and Scriven,M (1997). Critical Thinking: its Definition and Assessment. Norwich: Centre for research in Critical Thinking.

Russel,B.(1998). Morals and Others: Bertrand Russell’s American Essays 1931-1935. London: Routledge.

The word critical

Although the word critical has a purely negative connotation in day –to- day English, in academic language it means ‘evaluative’ or ‘analytical’

‘3 Cs’ are important for critical thinking

1. Challenge: Do not be afraid of questioning what “experts” and scholars have written about a popular topic.

2. Consider: reflect on what you have read, and identify what your position is. As the second text shows, good academic writing is analytical rather than just descriptive (e.g., it says why and how, not just what, when and where).

3. Combine: Having read a range of sources, you need to synthesize your ideas. God academic writing analyzes the issues from all angles and is based on a wide range of evidence and sources.

Critical thinking is more important in the British university system than in many other countries. In some countries it is not considered god practice t challenge the views of authorities and well –respected writers. In the UK, however, a culture of skepticism exists: you are encouraged to test and challenge ideas. Of course, any criticism you make must be supported by evidence: you cannot disagree with somebody without saying why.

Three golden rules for successful critical thinking

Be rational: if you are not prepared to challenge your view about a subject, you should not be studying at university. You should be reared to follow your reason, wherever it takes you.

Be open-minded: one of the great opportunities of studying at university in a foreign country is to broaden your perspective. As Socrates himself said,” I’m a citizen not of Athens, but of the world’ follow the logic to get the truth.

Be radical: do not be afraid to adopt controversial positions if you believe them to be right. Just because a view is unpopular, or is different to what the majority think, does not make it wrong. What makes it wrong is if it the lacks evidence. After all, the ideas of Darwin and Einstein were once ridiculed.

Activation

Read the following passage and highlight any assertion which you feel can be challenged. In each case, explain why.

Students from countries which can broadly be said to have a ‘Confucian system’ (particularly China, Japan and South Korea) have difficulty with critical thinking because of the academic cultures found in these countries. I have taught many people from this part of the world, and they always seem to have difficulties. Clearly, therefore, your mother tongue is also an important factor. In my opinion, French and German speakers also have significant problems in this respect. Recent research (e.g., Smith, 2001; Barton2004) indicates that it is not only overseas students who have problems with critical thinking, but British as well.This research is supported by www.criticalthinkingcourses.com.

1 Examine your essay and highlight any unimportant or weak arguments.

2. Consider whether you yourself have any particular bias (e.g., political, national, cultural) which may influence either your reading or writing.

3. If you decide you have, consider how you can reduce this bias, or at least minimize it.

How can we read more efficiently?

‘Reading is thinking with someone else’s head instead of one’s own.’

Arthur Schopenhauer

What specific strategies can improve reading skills?

In trying to develop reading skills, there are four key areas which students should try to improve: understanding, flexibility, speed and comprehension. Greater understanding comes through more active involvement in the text. It is imperative to examine the text analytically-whether autobiography, academic essay or newspaper article. Increased flexibility from not slavishly following the linear order of the text, but by adapting your reading strategies accordingly (e.g., reading the conclusion first).Turning to the issue of speed, focusing on the content-carrying words of the language, and reading in cluster of words (i.e., two-,three-and four-word phrases) can be beneficial. Finally, greater comprehension can be realized by focusing more on your prediction skills and your general understanding of the English language, and less time on your electronic dictionary.

Unit II

The Global Language

Task 1:

Read an extract from David Crystal’s well-known book “English as a Global Language” Translate it into Russian.

The Right Place at the Right Time.

What are we to include, after this wide-ranging review of the way English has come to be used in the modern world? Is there a common theme which can help us explain the remarkable growth of this language? The evidence is that it is a language which has repeatedly found itself in the right place at the right time.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries English was the language of the leading colonial nation-Britain. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries it was the language of the leader of the industrial revolution-also Britain. In the nineteenth century and the early twentieth it was the language of the leading economic power-the USA. As a result, when new technologies brought new linguistic opportunities, English emerged as a first-rate language in industries which affected all aspects of society-the press advertising, broadcasting, motion pictures, sound recording, transport and communications. At the same time, the world was forging fresh networks of international alliances, and there emerged an unprecedented need for lingua franca. Here too, there was a clear first choice. During the first half of the twentieth century English gradually became a leading language of international political, academic, and community meetings.

By the 1960s the pre-eminence of the language was established, but it could not at that time have been described as a genuine world language. Since then, however, two events have together ensured its global status. The first was the movement towards political independence, out of which English emerged as a language with special status in several new countries. In most of these, the role of English had come to be so fundamental that no other language could compete, when the moment of independence arrived. The other event was the electronic revolution, where here too English was in the right place (the USA) and the right time (the 1970s).

The development of twentieth-century computers has been almost entirely an American affair. As Michael Specter puts it, in his New York Times article: “The Internet started in the United States, and the computer hackers whose reality has always been virtual, are almost all Americans. By the time the net spread, its linguistic patterns - like its principal architecture and best software -were all Made in the USA”. Although computer languages are not like natural languages, being very restricted, they have inevitably been greatly influenced by the mother tongue of the programmers - and this has largely been English. The first computer operating systems automatically used English vocabulary and syntax, as can be seen in such instructions as “Press any key when ready” and “Volume in Drive B has no label.” These are examples for MS (Microsoft) DOS; the system developed in 1977 by US computer entrepreneurs. The more recent operating systems replacing DOS, have displayed English influence too, though alternatives in a few other languages are now available(where the commercial advantages have justified the development costs, as in French and German).And it seems likely that the influence of English will remain, as programs become increasingly sophisticated and allow users to make more natural-sounded commands.

It is difficult to predict the future, with something so dynamic as the Internet. In a few generations’ time, the Net will not be like anything we know today. Automatic speech synthesis and recognition will be routine, and more use will be made of automatic translation. The arrival of high-quality immediate translation facilities will have a major impact on the use of English (or any lingua franca) on the Net; but these are a long way off. For the near future, it is difficult to foresee any developments which could eliminate the significant role of English on the information superhighway. The biggest potential setback to English as a global language, it has been said with more than a little irony, would have taken place a generation ago-if Bill Gates had grown up speaking Chinese.

Task2:

Answer the questions based on text.

1. How did English develop in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries?

2. How did Britain contribute to English becoming the world language?

3. How did America?

4. In which areas of life did English emerge as a first-rank language?

5. Which two events ensured the global status of English?

6. How did the movement towards political independence contribute to h special status of English?

7. What impact did electronic revolution make on further promotion of English?

8. Why has the Internet been so influential to the future of English?

Task 3:

Discussing points:

1. David Crystal often uses the phrase”lingua franca.” Macmillan Dictionary defines”lingua franca” as a language people use to communicate when they have different first languages. Show justification that English is a lingua franca.

2. In his book “English as a Global Language” D.Crystal writes: “If Bill Gates had grown up speaking Chinese the future of English would have been different.” How do you understand this? Give your comments.

Task 4:

Read the text below about the English language and do the tasks that follow:

English is losing its political and cultural associations and becoming the property of all cultures. Over 70 countries in the world use English as the official or semi-official language, and in 20 more English occupies an important position. It is the main foreign language taught within most school systems. Worldwide, many newspapers are published in English and it is the language of much radio and television broadcasting. English is the language of international business, the main language of airports, air traffic control and international shipping. It is the language of science, technology and medicine, and it is estimated that two thirds of all scientific papers today are first published in English. It is the language of diplomacy and sports; it is one of the working languages of the United Nations and the language used by International Olympic Committee, International pop culture and advertising are also dominated by English.70% of the world mail is written in English, and 80% of all information in electronic retrieval systems is stored in English.

Task 5:

Choose the most appropriate title for the text.

1. Learning English

2. Working with English

3. A World Language

4. Language Sandwich.

Task 6:

Find the answers to the questions on the text.

1. How many countries use English as the official or semi-official language?

2. In how many countries is English important?

3. How many of all scientific papers are first published in English?

How much of all the information stored in electronic retrieval systems is in English?

Task 7:

Talk about it:

1. English is becoming a world language. Is this good news for every one, or can it cause problems?

2. Some French in Quebec want independence from English-speaking Canada. The Basque language (Euskera) was banned by the Spanish government; after a long struggle, it was accepted as an official language in 1980.Why do people care so much about their own language? Would you fight for the right to speak your language?

3. In some countries people are getting angry about the use of English words in their own language. For example some French do not like le marketing, le stress and le fast food in their language. How do feel about this? Does it matter?

4. Can you think of any examples of English words which have become part of your language?

5. How often do you come across English in your daily life?

Task 8:

Give a 5-minute speech on the topic “My view of Global English”

Task 9:

Here is a list of statements. Agree or disagree with them. Give reasons for your answer.

1. Most people are happy to give up their own language and learn a world language.

2. Latin used to be a lingua franca, just like English is nowadays.

3. Everybody is pleased about the rise of English.

4. Multilingualism is a dangerous thing.

5. If your language dies out, you lose an important part of your culture.

Task 10:

Below are some famous quotations on the English language and language in general. Choose one or two to your liking and comment on it (them).

1.”English is a language on which the sun never sets”

Randolph Quirk

2.”England and America are the two countries separated by a common language.”

George Bernard Show

3. “If we spoke a different language, we would perceive a somewhat different world.”

Ludwig Wittgenstein

Task11:

Debates

Organize the debates on one or both of the following issues. Give arguments “for” and “against”

1. All people should speak English.

2. Chinese is a “lingua franca” of the future.

Task 12:

Write an essay on one of the following:

1. Describe a language situation in your country. Is there more than one official language? Are there many different dialects? Are there any social or political problems connected with languages?

2. What would it be like if everyone in the world spoke the same language? What would be better or easier? Would you lose anything?

Unit III.

The Language of Politics

Task 1:

Think of the relationships between politics and language. What is the role of language for politics and vice versa-the role of politics in language?

Task 2:

Read the text and prepare to do the tasks that follow. Translate it into Russian.

Political language is powerful; it is persuasive. As its best political language inspires people and challenges them to make a difference, offering the hope that in working together we can create a better world. Over fifty years ago President John F. Kennedy energized a nation by exhorting its citizens to “ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country.” And we have heard stories of how, with powerful words, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill rallied their nations to defeat Nazi Germany during World War II and how Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Nelson Mandela championed nonviolence in leading the fight against aggression and racism in India, America, and South Africa.

But political language can be abused. At its worst, political language can be deliberately manipulated to mislead, deceive, or cover up. In the wake of the war in Vietnam, the Watergate scandal and the subsequent resignation of President Nixon, the Iran-Contra affair, and the Clinton- Lewinsky scandal, Americans have grown cynical about their political leaders’ promises and programs. As presidential campaigns seem to get started earlier and earlier, we are fed a daily diet of political language. Political speech saturates the American media. In daily newspapers and on the evening news we listen to fiery sound bites and seemingly spontaneous one-liners-presented as though they contained an entire argument or philosophy. Our politicians are savvy about the time constrains in news media, and their speechwriters make sure that long speeches have at least a few headline-grabbing quotes that might win them wide, albeit brief, coverage. But in the end, we are left wondering what we can believe and who we trust.

Task3:

Answer the questions based on the text

1. Why does the author think that political language is powerful and persuasive? How does he support his view?

2. What famous quotation by J. Kennedy does the author cite?

3. Which other persuasive and verbally powerful politicians does he mention?

4. What reverse or dark sides of political language does the author name?

5. Which events in American politics revealed the dark side of political language?

6. How do presidential campaigns and American media reflect the political language?

7. What kind of effect do the speechwriters make on readers?

Task4:

Tell the class which political speech you liked most. Why? How much did the language contribute to your liking?

Unit IV.

The Challenging English Language

Task1:

Do you think language is a powerful means of influencing people? Give your reasons.

Task 2:

Read the text “The Power of Language” and prepare to do the tasks that follow

The Power of Language

What interested me most about some of the ideas at IATEFL conferences was the strong reaction they arouse in many of the readers. Why should people feel so strongly about what is, after all, a perfectly natural process? Why do people get so upset at the fact that prepositions, for example, are not as predictable as some course-books and reference sources would lay us to believe? I suspect that part of the answer lies in most people’s strong reluctance to change. But part of the answer also lies in the close link between the control of language and the wielding of power. When people start to lose control over language, they begin to feel that they are in some way losing the power. This may seem a fanciful notion. But let us examine the idea more closely.

Malcolm X. at the inception of the Black Power movement said “Let us seize power. We are not Negroes. We are blacks. Let us seize power” Why? Why is the idea of changing one’s name from “negroes” to “blacks” in some way associated with seizing power? Because by getting rid of the name that he establishment had over them, and by themselves choosing what they should be called, they imbued themselves with a new power. On one level the change is symbolic; but the genesis of power is real.

As the author wrote this (autumn 1990), the Gulf conflict was well into its second month. So far, there seemed to be a battle. A battle to decide whose account of proceedings would prevail. Were the Westerners inside Kuwait and Iraq “hostages” or “guests”? Did Iraq “invade” Kuvait, or its presence there was “in support of he popular uprising”?

These battles of terminology are commonplace. In the early stages of US involvement in Vietnam, the anti-government forces were referred as Viet Minh. This term, however, had been used to describe the resistance during the war of independence against the French and therefore had a strong positive, freedom-fighting connotation. So, the Americans invented the term Viet Cong, short for Vietnamese Communist, as a more negative, terrorist-oriented epithet.

“Communism” is a word fraught with danger. In many countries Communist parties are politically respectable. In other countries the term Communist is used to denote anyone who steps out of the line with the government of the day. Any vaguely liberal-minded person would doubtless find themselves branded a communist in such a place. In the United States during the McCarthy years as supposedly democratic society allowed a witch hunt to take place resulting in social and political ostracism for those considered “communist.” A recent news item in the British press reports that “The Communist Party of Great Britain believes its name causes such loathing that it plans to reform under a new one.” Nina Temple, the party secretary, is quoted as saying “The public perception of communism is not of something entirely abhorrent.”

Further evidence of the power inherent in the name of a political party comes from the Liberal Democratic Party in Britain. Formed from an alliance of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party, they seemed to take an inordinate length of time agreeing on a suitable joint title. The public became bored with the whole exercise, jokes on the possible names abounded and the party lost some support during this period. But the people responsible, the politicians, were doubtless aware of how important the name could be.

The problem of naming does not stop with political parties. There are companies now whose sole function is to help their clients select names for new products. In part their function is to weed out names which, while acceptable in English, are totally unsuitable in another language. British Telecom apparently marketed an early portable telephone under the name “tonto”. Tonto is the name of the trusty Indian companion in the children’s cowboy series”The Long Ranger.” It is also Spanish for “stupid”. Sales in Spain were presumably not good.

These firms are also responsible for discovering or creating new product names and researching the image that these names project. Calibri, the name of Vauxhall car, is the creation of a company employed to develop a name for the new car and the result of extensive research.

Politics and marketing are not the only areas where language is used as an instrument of power.Almost all specialized groups of people have their own language identity. Lawyers, doctors, language teachers even, when talking shop, will often be almost incomprehensible to the lay person. With some groups it will be in their interest to maintain this mystique. It preserves their role in society. If we all knew what lawyers were talking about, we would probably pay them less, and might even dispense with them altogether. And this idea of language identity does not just apply to specialized groups. Gangs of children or criminals will develop their own slang to set them apart from their rivals. Pupils at British public schools often have a large “alternative” slang vocabulary to learn in order to reinforce their identity as part of the group. The language we use therefore will in many respects reflect the group we belong to.

Another aspect of the language is the uncomfortable and prevalent idea that the correct use of language can in some way be equated with education. As we have pointed out earlier there are problems with the argument which goes: this is what “educated” people say, therefore it is “correct”. The problem is one of defining what exactly “educated” means. If we are to turn the argument on its head and suggest that “educated people are those who speak correctly” we not only face the problem of what is “correct” English, but also the fact that given the data collected in this book there cannot be many “educated” people around. The argument becomes circular –which came first-the correct English or the education? Nonetheless, the idea of education is an important influence on people’s possibilities not accounted for by “the authorities”, it will be disturbing. People who feel they speak “correct”,”educated” English will feel threatened. They will no longer be able to regard themselves as elite.

So why do people become agitated when their accepted ideas about language are threatened? Is it just that they resent any change? This is a very common human trait. Or is it partly because they feel that a threat to “their” language is a threat to them, their identity and their view of the world? As observers of language we must be aware of the influence that language has, the power it has over human behavior and the effect that any changes will have on the people who use it.

Task3:

1. How, according to the author, is control over language related to power?

2. Why, according to the author, is the idea of changing a name is associated with seizing power?

3. Why did the Americans invent the term Viet Cong to refer to Vietnam?

4. What is Nina Temple quoted as saying?

5. How do you understand the concept of “language identity”?

6. Why do people become agitated when their accepted ideas about language are threatened?

Task4:

Ask 6 more questions based on the text

.

Task 5:

Give Russian equivalents for the following vocabulary from the text:

Arouse reaction invade

Reluctance to change resistance

A fanciful notion social and political ostracism

Seize power abhorrent

Imbue oneself with power language identity

Prevail a valid idea

Hostage threaten

Task 6:

Find in the text all collocations with the word “power” and copy them out.

Task 7:

Learn more about the word “power”-definition, synonyms, derivatives, collocations.

Power- 1) the ability to influence or control what people do or think; 2) political control of a country or government; 3)the country that is able to influence other countries because of its economic or military strength.

Derivatives: powerful, powerless

Synonyms: authority; warrant; prerogative; control; domination; influence; government.

Collocations:

Absolute power assume power

Ultimate power seize power

Considerable power take power

Limited power hold power

Legal power share power

Economic power give up power

Political power fall fro power

Secular power in power

Major power abuse of power

Allied power the balance of power

Enemy power a bid for power

Come to power a transfer of power

Rise to power

Task 8:

Translate the text “Власть языка”

Если говорить о проблеме взаимоотношения «Язык и власть», то надо сказать, что язык-это и есть власть. У нас несколько неправильное представление о власти, связанное с особенностями нашего языка. Вообще-то говоря, в современных языках, которые обслуживают демократические страны, слово «власть» отсутствует. И наши переводчики всегда попадают в неприятное положение, когда пытаются переводить, например, с английского. Нет там слова «власть»! Есть слово authority-«авторитетность», «авторитет», есть power-«сила», есть government-«управление». А «власть»-слово устаревшее, это - sovereign . Оно практически не употребляется. Точно так и во французском, точно так же и в испанском. А у нас, действительно, понятие «власть», то есть владение, переносится на каких-то людей, которых я, например, не могу признать своими владельцами. Я вообще-то никому не принадлежу.

Но вот кто в действительности настоящий властитель-это язык. Ролан Барт сказал, что язык-это «настоящий фашист»! Который диктует нам наши мысли, наше поведение, наши ценности. Однако, хотя я, конечно, не могу себя назвать квасным патриотом, всё же не без злорадства, должен сказать, что первым об этом сказал всё-таки Роман Якобсон! Он говорил, что язык интересен не тем, что он позволяет нам излагать какие-то мысли, а тем, что заставляет нас думать, так или иначе. Всё новое, происходящее с человеком, рождается в языке. Любая инновация сначала появляется именно в языке и только потом в других областях жизни.

Евгений Сабуров

Task9:

Look at the quotation:

“Language exerts hidden power, like the moon and the tides.”

Rita Brown

Write an essay based on this.

Unit V.

Diplomacy

Task1:

Read the article and look up the meaning of the unknown words in the dictionary.

The armed forces are the instruments of foreign policy, not its master

No successful and no peaceful foreign policy is possible without observance of this rule. No nation can pursue a policy of compromise with the military determining the ends and means of foreign policy. The armed forces are instruments of war; foreign policy is an instrument of peace. It is true that the ultimate objectives of conduct of war and of the conduct of foreign policy are identical: both serve the national interests. Both, however, differ fundamentally in their immediate objectives, in the means they employ, and in the modes of thought they bring to bear upon their respective tasks.

The objective of war is simple and unconditional: to break the will of the enemy. Its methods are equally simple and unconditional: to bring the greatest amount of violence to bear upon the most vulnerable spots in the enemy’s armor. The military leader lives in the present and in the immediate future. The sole question before him is how to win victories as cheaply and quickly as possible and how to avoid defeat.

The objective of foreign policy is relative and conditional: to bend, not to break, the will of the other side as far as necessary in order to safeguard one’s own vital interests without hurting those of the other side. The methods of foreign policy are relative and conditional: not to maneuver around them, to soften and dissolve them slowly by means of persuasion, negotiations, and pressure.

To surrender the conduct of foreign affairs to military is to destroy the possibility of compromise and thus surrender the cause of peace. The military mind knows nothing how to operate between the absolutes of victory and defeat. It knows nothing of the patient intricate and subtle maneuvering of diplomacy, whose main purpose is to avoid the absolutes of victories and defeats and meet the other side on the middle ground of negotiated compromise. A foreign policy conducted by military men according to the rules of the military art can only end in war.

Peace must be the goal of any foreign policy. Foreign policy must be conducted in such a way as to make the preservation of peace possible and not to make the outbreak of war inevitable. In a society of sovereign nations military force is a necessary instrument of foreign policy. Yet this instrument of foreign policy should not become the master of foreign policy. As war is fought in order to make peace possible, foreign policy should be conducted in order to make peace permanent. For the performance of both tasks, the subordination of the military under civilian authorities which is constitutionally responsible for the conduct of foreign affairs is an indispensable prerequisite.

2. Give Russian equivalents of the following words and phrases.

An observance; to determine; the ends and means; an objective; to conduct; vulnerable; to bend; to safeguard; to retreat; to circumvent; an outbreak; a subordination; indispensable; a prerequisite; to pursue a policy; to meet the other side on the middle ground; violence; to surrender; a conduct.

3. Give English equivalents of the following words and phrases.

Определять; вспышка (начало); вести; отступать; подчинение; цель; уязвимый; сгибать; предпосылка; соблюдение; уступать\сдавать; проводить политику; крайне необходимый;

Цели и средства; делать уступки; защищать; обходить; насилие; проведение.\

4. Read the article again. Using the words from the exercises above and the article finish the following sentences.

1) The objective of a war is…………

2) The method of conducting war is………..

3) The objective of foreign policy is………

4) The methods of foreign policy are……….

5) The main purpose of diplomacy is……….

6) Foreign policy must be conducted in such a way as………

7) The subordination of the military under civilian authorities is…….

5. Answer the following questions on the article using active words and phrases

1) What do the ultimate objectives of the conduct of war and the conduct of foreign policy serve?

2) What is the objective of war?

3) What is the objective of foreign policy?

4) What is the main purpose of diplomacy?

5) What is an indispensable prerequisite for the conduct of foreign affairs?

6. Render the article in English using active words and phrases.

7. Answer the following questions:

1) Do you agree that the military should not determine the ends and means of foreign policy? Why?

2) What is your attitude to the statement that to surrender the conduct of foreign affairs to military is to destroy the possibility of compromise and thus surrender the cause of peace?

3) Do you see eye to eye with the author stating that the main purpose of diplomacy is to avoid the absolutes of victories and defeats and meet the other side on the middle ground of negotiated compromise? Why? What to your mind is the main task of diplomacy?

4) Do you find it true that a foreign policy conducted by the military according to the rules of the military art can only end in war? If yes, why?

5) Why is subordination of the military under civilian authorities for the conduct of foreign policy an indispensable prerequisite?

6) Why do you think such former military leaders as de Gaulle and Eisenhower became prominent policymakers?

8. Make up reports on the following topics and answer the questions of the audience.

1. The armed forces are the instruments of foreign policy, not its master.

2. The armed forces should/can be a master of foreign policy along with diplomacy.

3. Diplomacy not backed by strength will always be ineffective at best and dangerous at worst.

Unit VI.