m
л
onophthongc
entralmid (broad variant)
unrounded
short
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“o” |
[л] |
Before “m, n, v, w, th” |
Another, above, among, govern, love |
|
“ou” |
[л] |
In some words of French origin |
Double, country, couple |
|
“ou” |
[л] |
Before “gh” [f] |
Enough, rough, tough |
[αu] plough [ɔu] though |
“u” |
[л] |
In the closed syllable |
Bus, under |
|
“u” |
[л] |
Before “rr” + vowel |
Current |
|
Comparison with the Russian vowel [a]. The Russian vowel [a] is more open and generally longer than the English [л].
m
α:
onophthongb ack
open (broad variant)
unrounded
long
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“au” |
[α:] |
Before “gh(t)” [f] |
Laugh, draught |
|
“a” |
[α:] |
In the final unstressed syllable before “ph” |
Paragraph, photograph |
|
“a” |
[α:] |
Before “th” |
Father, path, rather |
[æ] gather |
“a” |
[α:] |
In some words “a” + “n” + consonant |
Answer, branch, can’t, chance, demand, enhance. France, shan’t, slander |
|
“a” |
[α:] |
“a” + “s,f” + consonant |
Class, fast, grasp, task, draft |
[æ] asset, classic, mass, passive |
“al” |
[α:] |
Before “f, m” |
Balm, calm, palm, half |
|
“ar” |
[α:] |
In the closed syllable |
Far, part, particle |
|
Comparison with the Russian vowel [a]. The Russian vowel [a] is far more advanced than the English vowel [a:] and qualified as central. It is normally shorter than the English [a:].
ai
c entral
open (broad variant)
unrounded
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“i” |
[ai] |
In the open syllable |
Line, stifle |
[i] give, live, driven, given |
“i” |
[ai] |
Before “ld, nd” |
Bind, find, child, wild, wind |
[i] wind (air blowing), hinder |
“i”, “y” |
[ai] |
In the verb suffixes –ize, -yze, -yse, -fy, -y |
Realize, analyze, modify, occupy |
|
“ier” |
[ai] |
At the end of the word |
Lie, tie |
|
“ig” |
[ai] |
Before “n” |
Align, assign, design |
|
“igh” |
[ai] |
|
High, nigh, fight |
|
“y” |
[ai] |
In the open syllable |
By, type, cycle, typist |
|
Comparison with the Russian [aj]. The Russian sound combination [aj] starts from a less open position and ends in the sonorant [j], cf lie — лай; my – май.
o
ai
b
p losive
bilabial
weak
voiced
in final position it is partly devoiced
oral
consonants
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“b” |
[b] |
|
Bed, buld |
|
“bb” |
[b] |
|
Ebb |
|
Comparison with the Russian [n, б, n’, б’]. The Russian consonants [п, б] are mainly pronounced in the same way, but the lips are not so tens as for English; The Russian [п] is not aspirated. In word final positions only [п] is heard, eg дуб, гриб, while the English [b] j is partially devoiced, cf клуб — club.
The palatalized Russian consonants [п', б'] are formed with the front secondary focus, i. e. the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate. The oppositions of the Russian sounds [n — n’, б — б'] may distinguish the meaning of words, eg баки — бяки, об — Обь.
o
d
cclusivep losive
fore lingual
apical
alveolar
weak
voiced
in final position it is partly devoiced
oral
noise consonant
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“d” |
[d] |
|
Day, end |
[dz] Soldier |
Comparison witb the Russian [т, д, т’, д’]. The Russian consonants [т, д] are produced with the blade of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, they are dental, while the corresponding English sounds are apical alveolar and the Russian consonant [т] is not aspirated. In word final position only [т] is heard, eg пуд, сад, while the final English [d] is partially devoiced, cf сед — said.
The palatalized Russian consonants [т’, д’] are formed with the front secondary focus (the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate).
The opposition of the Russian sounds (т — т’, д — д’] may distinguish the meaning of words, eg тапки — тяпки, тук — тюк, дат (род, пад. мн.) — дать, ток — тёк, томный — тёмный, рад — рать.
m
e
onophthongsf ront
mid (narrow variant)
unrounded
short
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“ea” |
[e] |
Before “d, th, lth” |
Bread, breath, dead, death, head, health, lead (metal), wealth |
[i:] lead (conduer), beneath, breathe |
“e” |
[e] |
In the closed syllable Before “rr”+vowel |
Set, better Berry, error |
[i] England, English |
Comparison with the Russian vowel [э]. The Russian vowel [э] is a shade more open and retracted type than the English vowel [e].
T
he
nucleus of the
eə
f
rontopen (narrow variant)
unrounded
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“eir” |
[eə] |
|
Heir, their |
|
“ae” |
[eə] |
In the words of Greek and Latin origin |
Aerify [΄εərifai], aeroplane [΄εərɔplein], |
|
“air” |
[eə] |
|
Air, pair |
|
“ar” |
[eə] |
In the open syllable (are) |
Care, careful, vary |
[α:] are |
Comparison with the Russian Sound Combination [эа]. The Russian sound combination [эа] is equal in its elements, though it is a rare combination for Russian, cf care — океан.
d
ei
ei
iphthong
T he nucleus of the diphthong is
f ront
mid (narrow variant)
unrounded
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“ay” |
[ei] |
In the final position |
Essay |
[i:] key |
“ei”, “ey” |
[ei] |
|
Convey, grey, they, veil [veil] |
|
“eigh” |
[ei] |
|
Eight, weigh, weight |
[αi] height |
“a” |
[ei] |
In the verb suffix -ate |
Estimate, graduate |
|
“a” |
[ei] |
In the open syllables |
Take, taking, table |
[æ] have, atom [e] any, many |
“a” |
[ei] |
Before “ste”, “nge” |
Haste, taste, waste, danger, changer, range |
|
“ai”, “ay” |
[ei] |
In the word of Greek and Latin origin |
Aid, may |
[e] says, said |
Comparison with the Russian [э + i]. The Russian sound combination [эi] starts from a more open position and ends in the sonorant [j], cf lay — лей.
n
f
oise consonantc onstrictive
fricative
Voiceless
strong
labio-dental
oral
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“f” |
[f] |
|
Fill, off |
|
“ff” |
[f] |
|
Cliff, stuff |
|
“gh” |
[f] |
After letter combination “au”, “ou” |
Laugh, chough |
[-] though |
“ph” |
[f] |
In the words of Greek origin |
Phone, physics |
|
Comparison with the Russian [ф, в, ф’, в’]. The Russian [ф, в] are produced in the same way, only [ф] is less fricative, cf flag, флаг. In word final position only [ф] is heard, eg Ростов, актив.
The Russian palatalized [ф’, в’] have the secondary obstruction formed between the raised front part of the tongue and the hard palate, eg Федя,
o
g
cclusivep losive
back lingual
velar
weak
voiced
in final position it is partly devoiced
oral
noise consonant
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“g” |
[g] |
Not before “e, i, y” |
Big, gain, got |
|
“gg” |
[g] |
Not before “e, i, y” |
Egg, daggle |
|
“gh” |
[g] |
At the beginning of a word |
Ghost, ghetto |
|
Comparison with the Russian [к, г, к', г']. The Russian consonants [к, г] are produced in a similar way, but the breath effort for the Russian [к] is not so strong as for the English [k] which is aspirated. In word final position only [k] is heard, eg луг, маг, while the English [g] in final positions is partially devoiced, cf дог—dog, диалог—dialogue.
The palatalized Russian consonants [к’, г’] are formed with the front part of the tongue raised to the hard palate, thus making the front secondary focus.
h
noise consonant
c onstrictive
fricative
Voiceless
glottal
oral
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“h” |
[h] |
|
He, house |
|
“wh” |
[h] |
Before “o” |
Who, whom, whose |
|
Comparison with the Russian [x, x']. The Russian [x] is articulated in the mouth. The back part of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate and the friction is very strong. The Russian palatalized [x'] has two foci, the secondary focus being formed by the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate (front secondary focus).
m
i
onophthongsf ront-retracted
close (broad variant)
unrounded
short
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“ai” |
[i] |
In the post-stressed position before final “n” |
Captain |
|
“ay” |
[i] |
In the final position |
Sunday, birthday |
|
“ei” |
[i] |
In the post-stressed position before “gn” |
Foreign, sovereigni |
|
“ey” |
[i] |
In the final position |
Money, trolley |
|
“ie” |
[i] |
Before “s” and “d” in grammar suffixes |
Carries, carried
|
|
“ui” |
[i] |
In the post-stressed position |
Circuit |
|
“i” |
[i] |
In the closed syllable |
Fit, little, written |
|
“i” |
[i] |
In the closed syllable with “i” or “y” in the following syllable |
Civil, city, limit |
[аi] tiny |
“i” |
[i] |
Before “rr”+ vowel |
Mirror, squirrel |
|
“a” |
[i] |
In the suffixes of nouns and adjectives –ace, -age, -ate |
Surface, comrade, average, graduate |
|
“e” |
[i] |
In the pre-stressed and post-stressed syllables (including in the suffixes –less, -ness) |
Effect, ticket, helpless, darkness |
|
“i”, “y” |
[i] |
In the pre-stressed and post-stressed syllables |
Imply, synthetic, city |
|
“i”, “y” |
[i] |
Before final “n” and “l” |
Civil, ethyl, pencil, basin |
|
“y” |
[i] |
In the closed syllable Before “rr/h”+vowel |
Cyst, myth Pyrrhic |
|
Comparison with the Russian Vowels [и] and [ы]. The Russian vowel [и] is closer, more advanced and generally longer than the English [i]. The Russian vowel [ы] is a closer and a more centralized type than the English vowel [i], cf sit — cum — сыт.
c
ei
iə
entring diphthongs
T he nucleus of the diphthong is
f ront-retracted
close (broad variant)
unrounded
vowel [i] (not [i:])
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“ear” |
[iə] |
|
Clear, hear, near |
|
“er” |
[iə] |
In the open syllable (ere) |
Here, mere, zere |
[ə:] were [εə] there, where |
“ier” |
[iə] |
|
Fier, pier |
|
Comparison with the Russian Sound Combination [иа]. The Russian sound combination starts with a closer sound and ends in a very strong open vowel, cf fierce — фиалка.
The English diphthong is nearer to the unstressed position of the Russian combination [иа] like in пианино.
d
i:
iphthongoidsf ront
close (narrow variant)
unrounded
long
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“ai”, “ay” |
[i:] |
In the words of Greek and Latin origin |
Aegis, aesthetics |
|
“e” |
[i:] |
In the open syllable |
Be, cede, precede |
[e] edit, medal, metal, merit, very |
“ea” |
[i:] |
|
Sea, peace |
[e] deaf, Endeavour, heavy, peasant, weapon [ei] great [iə] friend |
“ee” |
[i:] |
|
Need, speed, exceed |
|
“ei” |
[i:] |
After “c, s” |
Conceive, receive, seize |
|
“i” |
[i:] |
Before post-stressed combination “que, ee, ge, me, ne” in the words of French origin |
Machine, routine, police, prestige, regime, oblique |
|
“ie” |
[i:] |
Before consonant |
Brief, chief, field, belief, |
[e] friend |
Comparison with the Russian Vowel [и]. The Russian vowel [и] is closer and more advanced than the English vowel [i:]. The English vowel resembles the Russian one only at the end of the articulation. The Russian vowel is a monophthong. It is normally short.
j
sonorant
c onstrictive
medial
medio-lingual
palatal
oral
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“y” |
[j] |
Before vowel |
Yes, year, beyond |
|
Comparison with the Russian [j]. The Russian sound [j] is pronounced with more noise than the English [j] as the front part of the tongue is raised higher.
o
k
cclusivep losive
back lingual
velar
strong
voiceless
oral
noise consonant
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“k” |
[k] |
|
Kin, take |
|
“c” |
[k] |
In all positions, besides “e, i, y” |
Can, act, topic |
|
“cc” |
[k] |
Not before “e, i, y” |
Accord, occur |
|
“ch” |
[k] |
In the words of Greece origin |
Chemistry, technology |
|
“ck” |
[k] |
|
Black, ticket |
|
“qu” |
[k] |
At the end of words of French origin before silent letter “e” |
Clique, technique, unique |
|
Comparison with the Russian [к, г, к', г']. The Russian consonants [к, г] are produced in a similar way, but the breath effort for the Russian [к] is not so strong as for the English [k] which is aspirated. In word final position only [k] is heard, eg луг, маг, while the English [g] in final positions is partially devoiced, cf дог—dog, диалог—dialogue.
The palatalized Russian consonants [к’, г’] are formed with the front part of the tongue raised to the hard palate, thus making the front secondary focus.
s
l
onorantc onstrictive
lateral
fore lingual
alveolar
apical
oral
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“L” |
[l] |
|
Lamp, value |
[-] could, should, would |
“LL” |
[l] |
|
Bell, fill, sell |
[ll] soilles |
Comparison with the Russian [л, л']. The Russian sonorant [л] is formed with the tip of the tongue raised to the upper teeth and the back of the tongue to the hard palate. The contact between the tip of the tongue and the teeth is not so firm as between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge in case of the English [ l].
On the whole the colouring of the Russian [л] is darker than that of the English [ l], cf мыл — mill, пил— pill, стул — stool.
The tip of the tongue rises to the upper teeth for the Russian palatalized [л’] as well. But in this case the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate even higher than for the English 'clear' [l]. So the Russian [л'] is still softer than the 'clear' English [l], cf люк — look, лес — less, лип — lip.
s
m
onoranto cclusive
bilabial
nasal
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“m” |
[m] |
|
Dim, home, mix |
|
“mm” |
[m] |
|
Dummy, summer |
|
“mb” |
[m] |
At the end of words |
Bomb, climb, succumb |
|
“mn” |
[m] |
At the end of words |
Autumn, column, solemn |
|
“gm” |
[m] |
At the end of a word |
Paradigm |
|
Comparison with the Russian [м, m']. The Russian sonorant [m] is produced in the same way, but the lips are not so tense as for the English [m]. Remember that in Russian there is a palatalized [m’]. When we pronounce it the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate forming the front secondary obstruction (focus). The Russian sounds [м] and [m’] differentiate the meaning of words, eg мал— мял; мол — мёл.
s
n
onoranto cclusive
fore-lingual
alveolar
apical
nasal
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“n” |
[n] |
|
Not, run |
|
“nn” |
[n] |
|
Dinner, sunny |
|
“gn” |
[n] |
At the beginning and at the end of a word |
Gnat, foreign, sign |
|
“kn” |
[n] |
At the beginning of words |
Knife, knot |
|
“pn” |
[n] |
At the beginning of words in the prestressed position |
Pneumatic, pneumonia |
|
Comparison with the Russian [h, h']. The Russian sonorant [н] is formed with the blade of the tongue (not the tip) pressed against the upper teeth. The tip of the tongue is passive and lowered.
The palatalized Russian [h'] is produced with the secondary front focus (the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate). The two Russian phonemes distinguish the meaning of words, cf нос — нёс.
o
ŋ
cclusives onorant
backlingual
velar
nasal
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“ng” |
[ŋ] |
|
Long, thing |
|
Comparison with the Russian [н]. In Russian there is no similar sound, that is why you must make every effort to avoid mistakes.
m
ɔ:
onophthongb ack
open (narrow variant)
rounded
long
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“oar” |
[ɔ:] |
|
Board, coarse, hoarse |
|
“or” |
[ɔ:] |
In the closed and open syllable |
Port, orbit, more, story |
|
“ough” |
[ɔ:] |
Before “t” |
Bought, thought |
[uə] bourgeois |
“our” |
[ɔ:] |
In some words of French origin |
Course, four, source, pour, your |
tour |
“yr” |
[ɔ:] |
In the closed syllable |
Myrch, myrtle |
|
“a” |
[ɔ:] |
Before “l” + consonant (except “m, l”) |
Also, fall, talk |
[ӕ] ally, attitude, metallic, rally, shall |
“a” |
[ɔ:] |
After “w, qu” in the open syllable and before “r” |
Water, war |
[ei] wake, wave |
“au”, “aw” |
[ɔ:] |
|
Cause, pause, law |
[ei] gauge, [α:] aunt |
“augh” |
[ɔ:] |
Before “t” |
Caught, taught |
|
Comparison with the Russian Vowel [o]. The Russian vowel [o] is closer than the English vowel [ɔ:]. It is pronounced with the lips not only strongly rounded but also protruded especially at the beginning of the articulation. The Russian vowel [o] is commonly shorter than the English [ɔ:].
ɔi
The nucleus of the diphthong is
b
ackopen (narrow variant)
slightly rounded
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“oi”, “oy” |
[ɔi] |
|
Boil, spoil, boy |
|
Comparison with the Russian [oj]. The Russian sound combination [oj] starts from a closer position and ends in the sonorant [j], cf boy — бой.
m
ס
onophthongb ack
open (broad variant)
rounded
short
Letter or letter combination |
Sound |
Position in the word or conditions of pronouncing |
Examples |
Exceptions |
“a” |
[ס] |
In the closed syllable |
Was, want, quantity |
[æ] wag, wax |
“o” |
[ס] |
Before “rr” consonant |
Borrow, tomorrow |
|
“o” |
[ס] |
In the closed syllable |
Not, bouom |
|
“o” |
[ס] [-] |
In the post-stressed syllable before “r” |
Laboratory |
|
“e” |
[ס] [-] |
In the post-stressed syllable before “n” + consonant |
Absent, recent |
|
Comparison with the Russian vowel [o]. The Russian vowel [o] is much closer than the English vowel [ס]. In the case of the Russian [o] the lips are not only strongly rounded but also protruded especially at the beginning of the articulation.