20. The main directions of contemporary theory of translation and the nature of translation.

1. the theory of regular correspondences (Retsker Y.I., A.V. Fedorov (1950-s));

2. theoretical model of translation based on generative on generative or transformational grammar (A.D. Schweitser, V.Y. Rozentsveig (Ru), E.Nida USA);

c) situational (denotational) model of translation (V.G. Gak (Ru), J.Catford (UK) – (semantic model));

d) the nature of translation

as an interlingual communicative act in which at least 3 participants are involved;

• the sender/source

• the translator

• the receptor

2 phases of translation;

the problem of translatability;

21. Levels of equivalence and the concept of adequate translations.

1. V.G. Gak, In. Levin’s levels of equivalence: formal, semantic and situational;

2. V.N. Komissarov: 5 levels of equivalence, their characteristic features;

3. the concept of adequate translation:

• adequate translation

• literal translation

• free translation

4. Ways of adequate translation

Losses and their compensation

22. The reflection of the nationally-cultural peculiarities in the lexical system of the English language.

Language as a tool of culture, the background knowledge of the user, the cultural background knowledge of the world; words without equivalents; cultural component of the word; culturally marked, territorially determined words, referring to the natural environment, to food & drinks, to the types of houses, to art & music etc [the Yorkshire Dales, the Yorkshire Moors, Lancashire cheese, Lancashire hotpot, Yorkshire pudding, high tea, Eisteddfod, stately houses].

23. Cultural bumps: overcoming misunderstandings in cross–cultural communication.

The vision of the world of a nation, realia, words without equivalents, the function of language as a tool of culture, the vision of the world, the sociocultural component, the world of language, the world of reality, different speech communities, actual "equivalents" in the full sense of the word, mode of living, the moral code, relations between people, the system of values, determined by socio-historical factors.

24. National images and intercultural communication.

National image, mentality, national character, stereotype, the English national character, the Welsh national character, the Irish national character, the Scottish national character, the American national character, John Bull, Uncle Sam, Union Jack, St George, St Andrew, St David, St Patrick Stars & Stripes; floristic symbols : leek, rose, thistle, shamrock, Big Apple, melting pot, etc..

25. Nationally cultural peculiarities of the English onomastics.

The most common English / Welsh / Scottish / Irish surnames; traditions of American / British anthroponomastics; author's inventions, typical Gaelic first names, typical Welsh first names, nicknames : Jock' or 'Mac', 'Paddy' or 'Mick' 'Taffy','Yanks' or 'Yankees', a 'Roller', 'Marks & Sparks' , The Hammers, "The Golden State", "The Lone Star State","The Equality State".