Syntactical Classification of Phraseological Units.

Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun-phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g., a dog’s life, a big shot, redbrick university, Green Beret;

b) verb-phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to rain cats and dogs, to be on the beam, to nose out , to make headlines;

c) adjective-phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, safe and sound, as thin as a rail, high and mighty;

d) adverb phraseological units, such as: with a bump, in the soup, like a dream, like a dog with two tails;

e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of;

f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. Catch me!, Well, I never! Take it easy, etc.

In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quotations, e.g. The sky is the limit, What makes him tick, I am easy.

The classification system of phraseological units suggested by professor A.V. Koonin is the latest outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. This classification is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and subdivided into four classes.

• Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups, including the

ones with one meaningful word: wear and tear, well and good.

• Nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of the

type: to break the ice – the ice is broken, that is, verbal word-groups are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.

• Phraseological units include interjectional word-groups.

• Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings.

These four classes are divided into sub-groups according to the type of structure of the phraseological units.

The classification system includes a considerable number of subtypes and gradations and objectively reflects the wealth of types of phraseological units existing in the language. It is based on scientific and modern criteria and represents an earnest attempt to take into account all the relevant aspects of phraseological units and combine them within the borders of one classification system.

54. What Classification of phraseological units was suggested by V.V. Vinogradov?

According to Vinogradov’s classification all phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological fusion is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit which meaning is never influenced by the meanings of its components [2; 244].

It means that phraseological fusions represent the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties.

Once in a blue moon – very seldom;

 To cry for the moon – to demand unreal;

Under the rose – quietly.

Sometimes phraseological fusions are called idioms under which linguists understand a complete loss of the inner form. To explain the meaning of idioms is a complicated etymological problem (tit to tat means “to revenge”, but no one can explain the meaning of the words tit and tat).

Phraseological unity is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit the whole meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of its components [2; 245].

In general, phraseological unities are the phrases where the meaning of the whole unity is not the sum of the meanings of its components but is based upon them and may be understood from the components. The meaning of the significant word is not too remote from its ordinary meanings. This meaning is formed as a result of generalized figurative meaning of a free word-combination. It is the result of figurative metaphoric reconsideration of a word-combination.

To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;

To come home – to hit the mark;

To fall into a rage – to get angry.

Phraseological unities are characterized by the semantic duality. One can’t define for sure the semantic meaning of separately taken phraseological unities isolated from the context, because these word-combinations may be used as free in the direct meaning and as phraseological in the figurative meaning.

 Phraseological combination (collocation) is a construction or an expression in which every word has absolutely clear independent meaning while one of the components has a bound meaning [2; 246].

It means that phraseological combinations contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively.

To make an attempt – to try;

To make haste – to hurry;

To offer an apology – to beg pardon.

Some linguists who stick to the general understanding of phraseology and refer to it communicational units (sentences) and winged words, define the fourth type of phraseological units.

Phraseological expression is a stable by form and usage semantically divisible construction, which components are words with free meanings [2; 246].

East or West, home is best;

Marriages are made in heaven;

Still waters run deep.

Phraseological expressions are proverbs, sayings and aphorisms of famous politicians, writers, scientists and artists. They are concise sentences, expressing some truth as ascertained by experience of wisdom and familiar to all. They are often metaphoric in character and include elements of implicit information well understood without being formally present in the discourse.

Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by Academician V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units: phraseological combinations, phraseological unities, phraseological fusions

(фразеологические сочетания, единства и сращения).

Phraseological combinations are word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, i.e. the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meaning of its constituents. E.g.: to have a bite, to be a good hand at smth, bitter truth, swam neck, dog’s life, to skate on thin ice (to take risks) etc.

Phraseological unities are word-groups with a completely changed meaning i.e. meaning of the unit does not correspond to meanings of its constituent parts. They are motivated units, where the meaning of the whole unit can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical). E.g.: to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), to stick to one’s word (to promise), old salt (experienced sailor), to lose one’s heart to smb (to fall in love). Collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc.

Phraseological fusions are word-groups with completely changed meanings, they are not motivated units, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components. These phrases are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages. E.g.: a white feather, to cut somebody dead means (to rudely ignore somebody, to pretend not to know or recognize him); a skeleton in the cupboard (a shameful or dangerous family secret); to come a cropper (to come to a disaster); red tape (bureaucratic methods: official rules that seem more complicated than necessary and prevent things from being done quickly). The origin is from the custom of tying up official documents with red or pink tape.