2. Obligation/Necessity

• We often use “must” when the obligation comes from the person speaking or writing. We must buy a gift for our visitor.

• We use “mustn’t” to say something is prohibited or is not allowed. You mustn’t use a mobile phone in an aeroplane.

• We often use “have to” to show that the obligation comes from another person or institution, not the speaker.

You have to get a visa to enter the country. (This is the law.)

3. Lack of obligation/Lack of necessity

• Don’t have to and mustn’t are very different: don’t have to = it is not necessary.

UNIT 7, UNIT 8 Language notes: DEGREES OF COMPARISON

There are three degrees of comparison in English:

1. Positive degree. 2. Comparative degree. 3. Superlative degree.

• When we speak about only one person or thing we use the Positive degree: This house is big.

• When we compare two persons or two things with each other we use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree:

This plant is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree)

This warehouse is not as big as that one. (Positive degree)

This manual is more complicated than that.

• When we compare more than two persons or things with one another we use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees:

This is the biggest plant in this district. (Superlative)

This truck is bigger than any other truck in the company’s truck fleet. (Comparative)

No other pallet in this area is as big as this one. (Positive)

	Positive Degree	Comparative degree adj. + - er	Superlative Degree adj.+ -est
Short words (one-syllable, - two-syllable ending in -y)	small large friendly	smaller lager friendlier	the smallest the largest the friendliest
Longer adjectives	crowded	more crowded	the most crowded
Irregular forms	good bad far	better worse further	the best the worst the furthest

UNIT 9 Language notes: REPORTED QUESTIONS. DEDUCTION: MODALS “MUST HAVE BEEN/CAN’T HAVE BEEN”

If we put a question into Reported speech there are some like changing of the person, backshift of tenses, changing of expressions of time. In Reported speech there is no question anymore, the sentence becomes a statement. That's why the word order is: subject – verb. The tense changes in reported questions are the same as those in reported speech

YES/NO QUESTIONS

“Is Anne going?” He asked whether Anne was going.

“Did she meet John?” He wanted to know if (whether) she had met John.\

QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS

“Where does he live?” She asked where he lived.

“What time is it” She wanted to know what time it was.

We do not use inverted commas or questions marks in reported questions.

Deduction: modals “must have been/can’t have been”

MUST BE expresses a logical deduction

MUST HAVE BEEN expresses logical deduction about past events. It is the past of MUST BE.

CAN’T HAVE BEEN expresses negative logical deduction about past events. It is the past of CAN’T BE.

UNIT 10 Language notes: DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun. They are usually divided into two types – defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses. Relative clauses are often introduced by a relative pronoun (usually who, which, that, when, where and whose). 'Who', 'whose' and 'that' can be used for people. 'Which' 'whose' and 'that' can be used for things.

Defining Relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas. Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions:

A logistician is a professional who works in the field of logistics management is called

UNIT 11 Language notes: PHRASAL VERBS

The term “phrasal verb” is applied to English construction “verb + preposition”. They form a single semantic unit. It cannot be understood based upon the meanings of the individual parts in isolation, but rather it must be taken as a whole, i.e the meaning is non-compositional and thus unpredictable. Some phrasal verbs require a direct object (someone/something), while others do not. Some phrasal verbs can be separated by the object, while others cannot.

Who is looking after the kids? – Кто присматривает за малышами?

They picked on Billy – Они подтрунивали над Билли.

I ran into an old friend – Я столкнулся со старым другом.

She takes after her mother – Она похожа на свою мать.

Sam passes for a linguist – Сэм слывет лингвистом.

You should stand by your friend – Тебе следует поддерживать своего друга.

UNIT 12 Language notes: GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES

When using one verb after another one, often the second verb is in the infinitive form: We are continuing to cut our manufacturing costs. Management agreed to offer generous redundancy terms to all staff affected. These verbs are often followed by the infinitive: intend, mean, want, seem, claim, attempt, try, pretend, fail, guarantee, promise, arrange, hope, wish, plan, offer, forget, expect.

The use of the -ing form (Gerund) depends on the first verb: The decision involves reducing our heavy losses. The verbs below are usually followed by the gerund: admit, give up, enjoy, mean, can’t stand, resent, risk, suggest, look forward to, appreciate, involve, consider, mind, detest, delay, avoid, contemplate, deny, carry on, justify, remember, recommend, miss, put off.

Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive form without a big change in meaning: She started loading the software/She started to load the software.

With other verbs the meaning changes: We stopped to check the machinery (We stopped what we were doing in order to check the machinery). We stopped checking the machinery (We stopped our habit of checking the machinery).

СБОРНИК ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНЫХ ТЕКСТОВ И ЗАДАНИЙ ДЛЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ

UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO LOGISTICS