Key Terms

be cautious – быть осторожным

causal relations - причинные связи

consequences – следствия, последствия

comprehensive – всесторонний, полный, всеобъемлющий

determinants of behavior – детерминанты (определяющие факторы) поведения

encounter – сталкиваться

in scope – в целом

multimeasure, multisource, multicontext approach – многомерный, из многих источников, многоконтекстный подход

operant response – оперантная реакция (специфический ответ, выбираемый экспериментатором при выработке условного рефлекса)

oversimplify – понимать слишком упрощенно

questionnaire – вопросник, опросный лист, анкета

reinforcement - подкрепление

scientific method – научный метод

social learning theory – теория социального опыта (познания)

unconscious - бессознательный

variable – переменная

Science is an accumulation of facts held together by theories. Theories, in turn, generate hypotheses that test specific predictions of the theory. The scientific method involves a number of steps: identifying the problem, collecting data, drawing conclusions, and revising theories. Important aspects of scientific research concern measures, strategies, sexism, and ethics.

Freud proposed a psychoanalytic model (a view of personality) with three structures: the id, the ego, the superego. Conflicts arise when the ego must balance the demands of the id and the requirements of the superego.

Erikson's theory incorporates aspects of Freud's theory but sees development as psychosocial rather than psychosexual and continuous throughout the life-span.

Organization and adaptation are important concepts in Piaget's theory. Cognition is qualitatively different at each stage of development. There are four stages of cognitive development in Piaget's theory: infancy, preoperational period, concrete operational period and formal operational thought.

Behaviorists focus on those things that can be directly observed in the environment rather than on unconscious processes. Behavioral and social learning theories favor empirical approaches to development. Skinner‘s theory of operant conditioning indicates that behavior (i.e., an operant response) is influenced by consequences produced by the environment.

Social learning theory identifies behavior, environment, and cognition as the influential and interacting factors in development. The contemporary version proposes that learning occurs through imitation and modeling as well as through reinforcement.

Ethologists focus on the evolutionary arid biological determinants of behavior. Lorenz studied imprinting in greyleg geese. The concept of critical periods in development indicates that there are times in life during which an organism must encounter specific experiences in order for certain behaviors to develop.

Ecological theory entails an environmental view of development that is comprehensive in scope. Socialization involves transactions between a changing child and a changing social environment.

An eclectic orientation emphasize the complexity of the developing person. This view proposes a life-long, multidirectional, multidimensional, plastic, historically embedded, contextual, and multidisciplinary approach.

All of the following methods allow researchers to perform systematic observation under controlled conditions: Observations. Interviews mid Questionnaires. Case Studies. (an in-depth look at a person but requires extreme caution.) Standardized Tests. Cross-cultural Research with Ethnic Minority Groups. Physiological Research and Research with Animals. Multimeasure, Multisource, Multicontext Approach.

Correlation Strategies measure the degree of relation between two variables and allow us to make predictions. In contrast, Experimental Strategies can determine causal relations between variables.

Life-span developmentalists now recognize that much psychological research has been male oriented and male dominated and have begun to examine issues from the perspectives of girls and women.

Be cautious about what is reported in the media. Various media often focus on the sensational and surprising information and oversimplify the analysis.