In 1821-1822 Greek uprising against Turkey began.

• On March 25, 1823 English government declared, that recognize equality of rights of both sides and consider the territory, which was realized by Greeks independent.

• In 1813 Russian government made up plan, according which, Greek province of Turkey, should been divided into three parts and given Autonomy to each of them under the supreme power of sultan, but under the control of European states.

• Austrian government rejected this decisions, because it’s increased Russian positions on Balkans.

In 1825 Nicolas I sent ultimatum to Turkey with next conditions:

1. Autonomy of governments should been established in Moldova and Walakhia, which existed before 1821;

2. Privileges should been returned to Serbia, which were promised by Bucharest Peace 1812, Serbian deputies released;

3. Turkic delegates should been sent on Russian border for negotiations.

Makhmud II gained ultimatum.

In 1826 France joined to Russian-England Union and in 1827 Coalition declared War to Turkey. Turkish-Egypt fleet was destroyed by the joining navy. In summer 1829 Russian army under the command general Dibich occupied Andrionople and reached Constantinople.On September 14, 1829 treaty was concluded in Andrionople:

• Russia gained mouth of Danube and islands;

• Russia received right of passage of trade ships through the straits;

• Danube provinces Moldova and Walakhia received Autonomy;

• Right of free trade on the territory of Ottoman empire was confirmed again;

• Caucasian cost from the mouth of Cuban till the northern border of Adjaria was given to Russia;

• Georgia, Imeretia, Mingrelia, Guria, Erivan and Nakhichivan joined to Russia;

• Greek recognized as an independent state.

So, Russia widened territories on Danube and Caucasian, released Greek and confirmed it’s influence on the Southern Europe.

In 1826-1828 Russian-Iranian relations worst. Iran prepared to the war with Russia for returning Georgia and Northern Azerbaijan. In summer 1826 Iranian army invaded to the territory of Russia. In 1827 Russian army attacked and invaded to Southern Azerbajan. On February 10, 1828 Turkmanchai treaty was concluded between Russia and Iran;

• Erivan and Nakhichivan Khandoms were given to Russia;

• Iran should been paid 20 mln rubles tribute;

• States exchanged by missions in the rank of envoys.

5. Pasha of Egypt Mekhmed-Ali, who was depended of Turkey waged war against Turkey and occupied Syria, and on December 21, 1832 Ibraghim (son of Pasha) destroyed Turkic army at Konia.

   • Diplomatic struggle began around the Eastern crisis between Russia, England and France. France pretended on Egypt and Syria and didn’t want, that Russia took part in decision of Eastern conflict;

   • England didn’t interest in the military interference of Russia;

   • Russia offered aid to Turkey. Only after invasion of the Ibraghim’s army to the North, Turkey officially asked aid from Russia. Russian navy arrived to Constantinople.

On July 8, 1833 Unkjar-Iskeles treaty was concluded, which declared peace, friendship and ally between Russia and Turkey. In the end of the 30-s struggle between Makhmud II and Egypt Pasha Mekhmed-Ali sharpened. Six years Turkey prepared war against Egypt. On July 17, 1839, Makhmud II declared war to Egypt and entered to Syria. England, France and Austria dangered, that Russia using of Unkyar-Iskeles treaty, conquered Constantinople.

• In the end of July Ibragim, son of Mekhmed-Ali destroyed Turkic army in Syria;

• In a few days Turkic sultan Makhmud died;

• On July 15, 1840 England, Austria, Prussia and Russia signed convention in London, for support Turkey. London convention was signed without France. French government was indignant because:

  1. convention was signed secretly;

  2. convention was directed against Mekhmed-Ali, consequently against interests of France, which dreamed to spread it’s influence on Egypt and Syria.

• In 1841 Russia, England, Austria, Prussia and France concluded treaty with Turkey about straits;

• France was admitted for conclusion of this convention. France understood, that didn’t contradict to four states and didn’t support Mekhmed-Ali more.

6. Between 1848 and 1878 the peace among the European powers was interrupted by the Crimean War (1853-1856) and challenged by the crisis centred on the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The Crimean War originated in the dispute between two differing groups of Christians and their protectors over privileges in the Holy Land. During the 19^th century, Palestine was part of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. In 1852, the Turks negotiated an agreement with the French to provide enclaves in the Holy Land to Roman Catholic religious orders; this arrangement appeared to jeopardize already existing agreements which provided access to Greek Orthodox religious orders. Tsar Nicholas I (reigned 1825-1855), unaware of the impact of his action, ordered Russian troops to occupy several Danubian principalities; his strategy was to withdraw from these areas once the Turks agreed to clarify and guarantee this rights of the Greek Orthodox orders. In October 1853, the Turks demanded that the Russians withdraw from the occupied principalities. The Russians failed to respond, and the Turks declared war. In February 1854, Nicholas advanced a draft for settlement of the Russia-Turkish War; it6 was rejected and Great Britain and France joined the Ottoman Turks and declared war on Russia.

Crimean War was divided into four stages:

• From October 1853 till March 1854, when England, and France entered to the War;

• From March till August 1854 – the military actions of England and France against Russia in Danubian principalities;

• From September 1854 till August 1855 – siege of Sebastopol;

• From September 1855 till February 1856, official negotiations about Peace began in Paris;

Representatives convened in Paris between February and April 1856. The resulting Peace of Paris had the following major provisions:

• Russia had to acknowledge international commissions to regulate maritime traffic on the Danube;

• Recognize Turkish control of the mouth of the Danube;

• Renounce all claims to the Danubian Principalities of Moldovia and Wallachia (which later led to the establishment of Rumania);

• Agree not to fortify the Aaland Islands;

• Renounce its previously espoused position of protector of the Greek Orthodox residents of the Ottoman Empire, and return all occupied territories to the Ottoman Empire;

• The Straits Convention of 1841 was revised by neutralizing of the Black Sea;

Lastly, the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire were recognized and guaranteed by the signatories.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare information about history of Britain-French rivalry in decision of “Eastern Question”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Write a short report: “Crisis of the Ottoman empire and “Eastern question” foundation. Essence of the “Eastern question”.

Home tasks: Prepare a short essay: “Russian-Turkish wars significance in the history of Danube principalities”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1. 1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.90-109

Lecture 11

Theme of the lecture: International relations in the end of the XIX c.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know influence of Bismarck’s diplomacy on the European policy, formation of colonial system in the end of XIX c.

Outline of the lecture:

1. Bismarck’s European diplomacy.

2. Triple Union foundation.

3. Colonial policy of European states in the end of the XIX c.

The brief content of the lecture .

I.Bismarck’s foreign policy was centered on maintaining the diplomatic isolation of France. After a few years of recovery from their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the French were regaining their confidence and public discussing the feasibility of a war of revenge to regain Alsace-Larraine.

In Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), Bismarck tried to serve as “Honest Broker” at the Congress of Berlin. Russia did not succeed at the conference and incorrectly blamed Bismarck for its failure. Early in the next year, a cholera epidemic affected Russian cattle herds and Germany placed an embargo on the importation of Russian beef.

II. The Russians were outraged by the German action and launched an anti-German propaganda campaign in the Russian press. Bismarck, desiring to maintain the peace and predictable diplomatic environment, concluded a secret defensive treaty with Austria-Hungary in 1879. The Dual Alliance was very significant because it was the first “hard” diplomatic alliance of the era. A “hard” alliances involved the specific commitment of military support; traditional or “soft” alliance involved pledges of neutrality or to hold military conversations in the event of a war. The Dual Alliance, which had a five year term and was renewable, directed that one signatory would assist the other in the event that one power was attacked by two or more states.

In 1882, another agreement, the Triple Alliance, was signed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. In the 1880s, relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia became estranged over Balkan issues. Bismarck, fearing a war, intervened and by 1887, had negotiated the secret Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. This was a “hard” defensive alliance with a three-year term renewable. Since these were “defensive” arrangements, Bismarck was confident that through German policy, the general European peace would be maintained and the security of Germany ensured by sustaining the diplomatic isolation of France. Bismarck also acted to neutralize the role of Great Britain in European affairs through a policy which in most instances was supportive of British interests.

III. In the end of the XIX c. European states aspirated to new colonial conquests.

• In 1875 England acquired control packet of the shares of Suez Canal. Britain government helped to Turkey by finance and pushed Turkey to the war with Russia;

• In 1878 England waged war with Pushtuns in Afghanistan for strengthening position in the South-Eastern Asia;

• In 1881 France conquered Tunisia and strengthened own domination in the Mediterranean sea.

• Egypt was a next sacrifice of Britain Empire. French capital dominated in Egypt till the 70-s of the XIX c., and England led struggle with France and forced out it from Egypt. In 1879 a group of officers arrested Nubar-Pasha and his cabinet was dismissed. In 1881 new uprising occurred.

• Colonial states penetrated to Africa;

• In the end of 80-s the situation sharpened on the Balkans. Uprising took place in the Eastern Rumelia, which led to the unification of Bulgaria. Contradictions between Russia and Austro-Hungary strengthened on the Balkans. England, Russia and Germany fought for domination in this region. Bismarck influenced to Russia, by limitation Russian import;

• France waged war in Indochina and revenge moods dominated in France. That’s why France looked for rapprochements with Russia.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare information about Bismarck’s foreign policy.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Write a short report: “Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878.”

Home tasks: Write essay: “Berlin Congress (1878)”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1. История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.146-154

Lecture 12

Theme of the lecture: The scramble for colonies.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the main policy of European states concerning Soviet Russia and items of international economic conferences in the first half of the 20-s.

Outline of the lecture

1. Africa.

2. Pacific Ocean

3. Asia.

4. Spanish-American War.

The brief content of the lecture

1. In the end of XIX – beg. XX cc new stage for redistribution of the world began. The focus of most of the European imperial activities during the late 19 th century was Africa. Since the 1850-s Africa had commanded the attention of European explorers such as Richard Button, Carl Peters, David Livingstone and many others. Disraeli was involved in the intrigue, which would result in the British acquisition of the Suez Canal (1875).

   • and during the 1870-s and 1880-s Britain was involved in Zulu War and announced the annexation of Transvaal, which Boers regained after their great victory of Majuba Hill (1881). At about the same time, Belgium established its interest in the Congo;

   • France, in addition to seizing Tunisia, extended its influence into French Equatorial Africa;

   • Italy established small colonies in East Africa;

   • During the 1880-s Germany acquired several African colonies including German East Africa – the Cameroon’s, Togo land, and German South West Africa.

All of these imperial activities heightened tensions among the European powers. Consequently, the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) was convened. The conference resulted in an agreement which specified the following:

1. The Congo would be under the control of Belgium through an International Association;

2. More liberal use of the Niger and Congo river;

3. European power could acquire Africa territory through first occupation and second notifying the other European states of their occupation and claim.

Between 1885 and 1914, the principal European states continued to enhance their position in Africa. Without doubt, Britain was the most active and successful. From 1885 to 1890, Britain expanded its control over Nigeria, moved north from the Cape of Good Hope, and became further involved in East Africa. By this time, Salisbury was the leader of the Conservative Party and, when in office, he fostered imperial expansion. Gladstone was still an anti-imperialist and the leader of the Liberal Party; he found the imperialist forces so formidable that he had to compromise his position on occasion when he was Prime Minister. During the 1880-s, an Islamic revolution under the Madhi; an Islamic warrior, developed in the Sudan. In 1884 Gladstone sent General Charles to evacuate Khartoum; Gordon and city’s defenders were slaughtered by the Mahd’s forces in January 1885. The British found themselves confronted with a continuing native insurrection in the Sudan which was not suppressed effectively until Kitchener’s victory at Omdurman in 1898.

- The French were also quite active during this period. They unified Senegal, the Ivory Coast and Guinea into French West Africa and extended it to Timbuktu, then moved up the Ubangui toward Lake Chad. While the British difficulties in the Sudan, the French had to suppress a native insurrection in Madagascar which lasted until 1896.

- British movement north of the Cape of Good Hope in a different type of struggle – one that involved Europeans fighting one another rather than native century. With the discovery of gold (1882) in Transvaal, many English Cape settlers moved into the region. The Boers, under the leadership of Paul Kruger, restricted the political and economic rights of the British settlers and developed alternative railroads through Mozambique which would lessen the Boer dependency on the Cape colony. Relations between the British and Boers steadily deteriorated. In 1895, the. Jamesola Raid, an ill-conceived action not approved by Britain, failed to result in restoring the status of British citizens. The crisis mounted and, in 1899, the Boers fought a war which was costly to both sides. Britain prevailed and by 1909, the Transvaal, Orange Free state, Natal and Cape of Good Hope were united into Union of South Africa.

2. Another area of increased imperialist activity was the Pacific. In 1890, the American naval Captain Alfred Mahan published “The Influence of Sea Power Upon History”; in this book he argued that history demonstrated that nations, which controlled the seas prevailed. During the 1880-s, and 1890-s naval ships required coaling stations. While Britain, the Netherlands, and France demonstrated that they were interested in Pacific islands, the most active states in this region during the last 20 years of the 19 th century were Germany and the United States.

• Britain’s Pacific interests were motivated primarily in sustaining its control of Australia;

• The French were interested in Tahiti; after a dispute with France, over Samoan Islands, the islands were split with France, Germany and the United States;

• The United States acquired the Philippines in 1898;

• Germany gained part of New Guinea, and the Marshall, Caroline, and Mariana island chains.

3. The European powers were also interested in the Asian mainland. In 1900, the Boer Rebellion broke in Peking; it was a native reaction against Western influence in China. An international force was organized to break the siege of the Western legations. Most powers agreed with the American Open Door Policy with recognized the independence and integrity of China and provided economic access for all the powers. Rivalry over China (Manchuria) was a principal cause for outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Find information about Russo-Japanese War.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Prepare essay: “Spanish-American War”.

Home tasks: Make up a map “Formation of colonial system of imperialism ”.

List of the reference on the theme

1. История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с. 155-161

2. Дебидур Ф. Дипломатическая история Европы. 1814-1978. Ростов-на-Дону.1995,с.162-169

3. Деборин В.П. Международные отношения до первой мировой войны (1871-1914).- Саратов, 1978, с.142-168

4.Ерусалимский Е.А. Колониальная экспансия капиталистических держав и освободительное движение народов Южной Африки и Китая в XVII-XIX вв. – М., 1974, с.83-110

5.Парфенов И.Д. Колониальная экспансия Великобритании в последней трети XIX в.- М., 1998, с.77-92

Lecture 13

Theme of the lecture: International politics in the end if the XIX-beg.XX cc.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the main reasons of the polarization of Europe in the end of XIX c. The main crisis which occurred between greatest European states. The causes of Russian-Japanese war and it’s influence on European relationships.

Outline of the lecture

1. International relations in the end of the XIXc.

2. Russian-Japanese war.

The brief content of the lecture

I. During the late 19 th century, the economically-motivated “New Imperialism” resulted in further aggravating the relations among the Uropean powers. The Fashoda Crisis (1898-1899), the Moroccan Crisis (1905-1906), the Balkan Crisis (1908), and the Agadir Crisis (1911) demonstrated the impact of imperialism in heightening tensions among European states and in creating an environment in which conflict became more acceptable.

In March 1890, Bismarck was dismissed as a Chancellor of Germany by immature, impetuous, and inexperienced Kaiser William II. The Bismarck’s dismissal, the continuing dominance of Germany over European affairs was questionable. Germany failed to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia and so Russia looked elsewhere to eliminate its perceived isolation. In 1891, secret negotiations were entered into by French and Russians. Within four years of Bismarck’s dismissal, the essential imperative of German foreign policy in the late 19 th century – the diplomatic isolation of France – was no longer a reality.

In 1895, a new Conservative government came to power in Great Britain. Led by Lord Salisbary, who served as Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary, this government included a wide range of talented statesmen. The Salisbury government was interested in elimination of the long-standing policy of “Splendid Isolationism” which had prevailed as Britain’s response to European alliances. Salisbury came to argue that the new realities of word politics and economics deemed it advisable for Britain to ally itself with a major power. While coming under general European criticism for its role in the Boer War (1899-1902) in South Africa, British representatives approached Berlin in an attempt to develop Britain pursued diplomatic opportunities which resulted in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902), the Entente Cordiale or Anglo-French Entente (1904), and the Anglo-Russian Entente (1907).

II. International relations on the Far East sharpened in the beginning of the XX c. Japan penetrated to China. England, Germany, France and the USA wanted to establish their influence in China too. Russia aspired to have unfrozen ports in Pacific Ocean and to strength in Manchuria. The Great Siberian Railway has been built. Influence of Russia in China increased.

In 1901 Boxer uprising against European penetration to China began. England, France, Germany, Russia and Japan sent navies under the command of Field Marshall Valdezee.

In 1901 treaty was concluded between China and European states:

• Import of weapons was prohibited during two years;

• Forts of Dagu were liquidated;

• District, were lived ambassadors were defended by special police.

In the same time negotiations between England and Germany concerning principles of the Open Door in China began. England wanted to involve Germany for conclusion agreement about Manchuria, but Germany didn’t want to complicate relations with Russia, but hoped to contradict relations between England, Russia and Japan. Russia needed to stop Japan, which wanted to conquer China, Korea and even Siberia. But Russia didn’t prepare to this war. During the Russian-Japanese negotiations, Japan announced next demands:

• Recognition of protectorate in Korea;

• Agreement of the building railway, connecting Korea with Southern Manchuria;

• Equalizing of Russian and Japanese rights in Manchuria;

In spite Petersburg fulfilled demands, Japan broke out relations with Russia on February 6, 1904 and in a two days Japanese fleet attacked Port-Arthur and Chimulpo. Russian-Japanese war began. But military success of Japan changed situation on the Far East. After defeat of Russia in Tsusima battle Britain government closed access to London banks for Japan. England and the USA didn’t want strengthening of Japan on the Far East. France didn’t want moving of Russian military forces to the Far East from Europe, because it violated balance of military forces against Germany. That’s why all states decided to end war.

American President T.Rousvelt was a mediator between Russia and Japan. Russian-Japanese negotiations began on August 19, 1905 in Portsmouth (USA) and lasted 27 days. Russian delegation was headed by S.Vitte, Japanese – by minister of foreign affairs Rutaro Komura. Peaceful treaty was concluded on September 5, 1905 and consist of 15 points:

1. Russia recognized influence of Japan in Korea;

2. Russia and Japan obliged to withdraw troops from Manchuria;

3. Russia ceded Port-Arthur,, Tahnen to Japan for rent and passed railway, which connect Port-Arthur Chan-Chun;

4. Southern Sakhalin was given to Japan, and border between two states was established on 50-parallel.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Make up a table: “The main international events by XXc.”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Write a short report: “Russian-Japanese War”.

Home tasks: read «Дипломатическая история Европы» and prepare annotation.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.155-161

2. Казанцев Ю.И. Геополитические императивы дальневосточной политики России на рубеже XIX-XX вв.Новосибирск, 1999, с.167-168

3. Шацилло К.Ф. От Портсмутского мира к первой мировой войне. Генералы и политика. М., Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2000, с.33-34

4. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.26-41

Lecture 14

Theme of the lecture: Balkan Wars

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the main reasons of the main reasons of the I and II Balkan Wars. The position of European states and the results of the wars.

Outline of the lecture

1. Causes of Balkan crisis: position of European states.

2. Foundation of Balkan block.

3. I Balkan War.

4. London Conference.

5. II Balkan War.

The brief content of the lecture

1. Foundation of Entente increased contradictions of two blocs in Europe and sharpened Anglo-German rivalry. British diplomacy aspired to limit arm race of Germany on sea. Germany refused. Conference in the Hague in 1907 and meeting of Edward VII and Wilhelm II in Kronburg in 1908 discussed this problem, but production of new ships by Germany didn’t reduce. As a result England decided on each German ship to build two ships.

Both blocks attempted to reinforce the positions on Balkans and Middle East:

• Germany desired to submit Turkey, especially after gaining concession on building of Baghdad railway. Turkish sultan was interested in this influence, because wanted to strength power in Balkan;

• Austro-Hungary wanted to subjugate Serbia and Bulgaria and to weak Russia;

• It’s contradicted to British policy, which protected ways to India. British banks refused to invest building of Baghdad railway England threatened sultan, that Turkey would been lost Macedonia;

• Austro-Hungary forced pressure to Balkan states. In 1908 project about construction railway to Salonics became known;

• Russia suggested project about building railway from Danube to Adriatic sea, for avoiding economic and political submition of Serbia by Austro-Hungary.

Coup d’etate in Turkey, where Kiamil-Pasha became a Great Vizir and adoption a Constitution influenced on the negotiations about construction of railway. External policy of Turkey was reoriented from Germany to England.

Austro-Hungary looked for support of Russia and hoped if status quo of straits was solved in profit of Russia, Russia to agree on joining of Bosnia and Herzegovina. But London and Paris didn’t change motions of Berlin Congress. So, attempts of Russian diplomacy to remake status quo of straits in exchange on annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austro-Hungary failed. As a revenge to European states Russia concluded agreement about status-quo on Balkans with Italy on October 24, 1909 in Rakhonidji. It was secret document and consist of five points:

a) Preservation of status-quo on Balkans;

1. Mutual actions against foreign domination by diplomatic measures;

2. Conclusion of new treaties with third side only by permition of two states;

3. Italy obliged to support Russian interests in decision of status quo of straits;

4. Russia obliged to support Italian interests in Tripoli Tania and Kireanaik.

The policy of Austro-Hungary on Balkans worried Serbia. Russia supported Serbia. Austro-Hungary decided to use influence of Germany in Russia. In March 1909 German ambassador Purtales delivered ultimatum to Russia. If Russia supports Serbia, Germany would offered free action to Austro-Hungary on Balkans, that meant Austro-Serbian war. Nicole II adopted German conditions. In a few days Serbia recognized Austrian annexation.

In 1911 the second Moroccan crisis broke out, when France announced that its troops would be sent to several Moroccan towns to restore order. Germany decided to occupy Moroccan harbors Magador and Agadir, where located German enterprises. On July 1, 1911 “Panther” a German naval ship was sent to Agadir. After exchanging threats for several weeks, the French and Germans agreed to recognize Morocco as a French protectorate and to transfer two sections of the French Congo to Germany. Events in Morocco more sharpened relations between Germany one side and France and England from other. In England and France grew anti German moods. In France and German grew chauvinism.

In the end of 1911 Italy sent ultimatum to Turkey and war began for conquest Tripoli and Kirenaik. Italian fleet bombed some ports. Lybia was ceded to Italy.

II. Aggressive actions of Austro-Hungary? Italo-Turkish war pulled Balkan states to unification against Turkey.

• Russia supported this union, but against Austro-Hungary and Germany;

• Bulgaria and Greece were interested in victory over Turkey:

• Serbia concentrated on the struggle with Austria. Serbia and it’s Prime-Minister Milovanovich was initiator of the foundation of Balkan block.

• Russia dangered that war against Turkey, promoted interference of Austro-Hungary and Germany.

Serbia-Bulgarian Treaty was signed on March 13, 1912 and consist of seven points and secret attachment. Both states guaranteed each other independence and territorial intact and obliged to each other in case of military attack. In May, 1912 both states signed military convention against Turkey and Austria. Serbia would be represent 150 th. Soldiers, Bulgaria – 200 th. In May, 1912 Bulgaro-Greece Treaty was concluded in Sofia about military aid each other if Turkey occupied the territory of this states.

III. On October 9, 1912 Montenegro opened military actions, which led to the I Balkan War. In a few days Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece joined to war. Balkan states defeated Turkic troops and occupied main part of territories of Turkey in Europe. Bulgarian army reached Constantinople and Turks asked a peace. On May 30, 1913 peaceful Treaty between Turkey on one side and Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro on other side was signed:

• Turks ceded territories on European continent to the West from line Anos, excluding Albania;

• Problems, concerning Albania, should been solved by 6 European states.

• Egypt refused from Crypt;

• Ambassadors of 6 states decided to found Albanian Autonomy. Supreme power belonged to Turkish sultan, under the control of European states.

I Balkan War increased the positions of Serbia. Serbia wanted to revise agreements with Bulgaria about territories. Problems between Bulgaria and Greece, concerning Macedonia and Salonics broke out. On June 1, 1913 Greece and Serbia signed treaty against Bulgaria. On June 29, 1913 Bulgaria began military actions against Serbs and Greeks, hoping that Austro-Hungary support them. The II Balkan War began. On June 16, Bulgaria attacked Turkey. But Turks occupied Adrionopol, and Balkan states moved to Bulgarian territories. War finished by Bucharest Conference, which began on July 30, 1913. Peace was concluded on August 10, 1913:

• Greece received Southern Macedonia, Salonics, part of Western Freakier and islands in Egei sea;

• Serbia gained a main part of Macedonia, which before belonged Bulgaria;

• Southern Dobridja was ceded to Rumania;

• Turkey returned part of Freakier and Andrionopol.

Balkan wars led to liberation of Slavonic nations from Turkey oppression.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare a short essay “Revolution in Turkey in 1908 and it’s influence on the European relationships”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Compare the results of the I and II Balkan wars.

Home tasks. Summarize the results of local wars, which took place in the end of the XIX-beg. XX cc. and form reasons of the I WW.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.176-182

2. Киняпина Н.С. Балканы и проливы во внешней политике России в конце XIX века. М.,1994, 155с.

3. История внешней политики России. Конец XIX–начало XX века. М., Международные отношения, 1999, с.340-341

4. Дипломатический словарь. В 3-х томах. Т.1, с.162-163

5. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.60-74

Lecture 15

Theme of the lecture: Diplomacy eve and during the I WW

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the main stages of diplomatic struggle between belligerent states. The main terms of the Russian and German projects of future arrangement of the world. Position of the USA, it’s policy of neutrality and entrance to the war.

Outline of the lecture

1. Diplomatic Crisis of the Summer (1914). Reasons of the War.

2. Germany and Schlieffen Plan.

3. Beginning of the War.

4. Secret allied agreements concluded during WW I.

5. The USA’s road to War in Europe.

The brief content of the lecture

1. During the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was disintegrated;

• At the same time, Austria and Russia were interested in extending their influence in the region;

• Furthermore, nationalism among the ethnic groups in the Balkans was rapidly developing;

• In addition to the Balkan crisis of 1908, the region was involved in the Italian-Turkish War (1911) and Inter-Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913.

• The long-range roots of the origins of the WWI can be traced to numerous factors, beginning with the creation of modern Germany in 1871. Achieved through a series of wars, the emergence of this new German state completely destroyed Europe’s traditional balance of power.

• From 1871 to 1890, balance of power was maintained through the network of alliances created by the German Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck’s fall in 1890 resulted in new policies that saw Germany more closer to Austria, while England and France (Entente Cordiale, 1904) and later Russia (Triple Entente, 1907), drew closer.

On June 28, 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a young Serbian nationalist. Austria consulted with the German government on July 6 and received a “blank check” to take steps necessary to punish Serbia. On July 23, 1914 the Austrian government presented Serbia with 11 threatening demands. The required Serbia to suppress and punish all forms of anti-Austrian sentiment there with the help of Austrian officials:

• Austria immediately broke official relations with Serbia and mobilized its army;

• On July 28, 1914, Austria went to war against Serbia, and to bombard Belgrade the following day;

• At the same time, Russia gradually prepared for war against Austria and Germany, declaring full mobilization on July 30.

2. German military strategy, based in part on the plan of the Chief of the General Staff Count Alfred von Schlieffen, viewed Russian mobilization as an act of war. The Schlieffen Plan was based on a two-front war with Russia and France. It was predicated on a swift decisive blow against France while maintaining a defensive position against slowly-mobilizing Russia , which would be dealt with after France. Attacking France required the Germans to march through neutral Belgium, which would later bring England into the war as a protector of Belgian neutrality.

3.Germany demanded that Russia demobilize in 12 hours, and appealed to the Russian ambassador in Berlin. Russia’s offer to negotiate the matter was rejected, and Germany declared war on Russia on August1, 1914.

• Germany asked France its intentions and Paris replied that it would respond according to its own interests. On August 3, Germany declared war on France. Berlin asked Belgium for permission to send its troops through its territory to attack France, which Belgium refused;

• On August 4, England, which agreed in 1839 to protect Belgian neutrality, declared war on Germany;

• Belgium followed suit;

• Between 1914 and 1915, the alliance of the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey) faced the Allied Powers of England, France, Russia, Japan, and in 1917, the United States;

• A number of smaller countries were also part of the Allied coalition.

4. War, which began in August 1914 in Europe, acquired world character. Some states supported Germany, others Entente:

1) Two Unions fought for Balkan states: on August 2, 1914, Union Treaty was concluded between Germany and Turkey. If Russia will interfere in the conflict between Austro-Hungary and Serbia, Germany supports Austro-Hungary and Turkey should been announce war to Russia. After conclusion a treaty, Turkey began mobilization. Turkic army and navy were commanded by German officers. After bombing of Sebastopol, Odessa, Novorossiisk and Feodosia by Turkish fleet, Russia broke out relations with Turkey and declared war on November 2. England and France joined to it.

2) Germany and Entente attracted Italy to their side and promised to give:

• Entente – Triest, Trentino and Volona;

• Germany – some French lands, lands in Nothern Afrrica and Mediterranean cost.

After a long negotiations Italy joined to Entente and on April 26, 1915 secret Agreement with Russia , Great Britain and France was signed in London. According agreement Allies had promised Italy Trentino, Tirol, Triest, counties Goritsa and Gradisca, Istria, including Istra islands and some small islands and Dalmatsia. Italy was promised some rights and priviledges on Meditarranean sea. On May 23, 1915 Italy declared war on Austria, and in August 1916 on Germany.

On September 5, Russia, England and France signed agreement about non-conclusion separate treaties during the war. On September 1914 on the meeting English and French ambassadors, Russian minister of Foreign Affairs reported project of future Peace:

• Low flow of Neman and Eastern Galicia, Poland with Poznan, Silesia and Western Galicia should been included to Russia;

• Alsace, Lorraine and Rheinlands should been returned to France;

• Some territories of Germany should been ceded to Belgium;

• Schlezvige and Holstein should been given to Denmark;

• Hanover kingdom should been restored;

• Unification Monarchy, which united Austria, Hungary and Bohemia should been created;

• Bosnia,Herzegovina, Dalmatsia and northern part of Albania should been joined to Serbia;

• Bulgaria should been received compensation in Macedonia;

• Greece should been received southern part of Albania.

In March 1915, England and France had promised Russia Constantinople, the Straits, and the bordering areas as long as they were openly accessible.

Two blocks fought for Bulgaria. Bulgaria had geographical and military significance on Balkans. Bulgaria boundered with Turkey and Serbia. Negotiations of Entente with Bulgaria was useless Bulgaria joined to Triple Union. In October 1915 Bulgaria concluded treaty with Turkey, then with Germany and Austria. On October 14, Bulgaria attacked Serbia.

On August 17, 1916 Rumania signed agreement with Russia, England, France and Italy. On August 28, Rumania declared war to Austro-Hungary. Rumania was promised Transylvania, part of Bukovina and Banat.

While battles took place, diplomats have prepared projects of future world. After a long debates Entente adopted decision about division Asian Turkey:

• England should been received Mesopotamia;

• France – Syria, small Armenia, main part of Kurdistan;

• Russia – provinces of Trapezund, Erzerum, Baiazet, part of Kurdistan and line along of Black Sea cost;

• Italy – main part of Anatolia;

• Turkey was remained only Central and North-Eastern part of Anatolia;

• International control planned establish over Palestine.

What were the plans of Germany? Berlin intended to create a big economic Union in center of Europe, submitted to Germany in which entered Austro-Hungary, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Poland and part of France. In future should been included Italy, Sweden and Norway. Germany planned to join Finland, Baltic provinces and even Ukraine, Byelorussia, Crime and Caucasus.

On August 23, 1914 Japan declared war Germany. Japanese troops occupied islands in Pacific Ocean, which belonged Germany and moved to Chinese territory. Kiachow was occupied and explained by necessity returning of Chinese lands to China. “21 demands” were delivered to Chinese government by Japan. Rights in province Shandun were given to Japan. Eastern, Internal Mongolia, Southern Manchuria were depended from Japan. China was under the protectorate of Japan.

5. When WW I broke out in Europe, Wilson issued a proclamation of American neutrality on August 4, 1914. The value of American trade with Central Powers fell from $169 mln in 1914 to almost nothing in1916, but trade with the Allies rose from $825 mln to $3,2 billion during the same period. In addition, the British and French had borrowed about $3,25 billion from American sources by 1917. The United states had become a major supplier of Allied munitions, food, and raw materials. In November 1915, Wilson proposed a major increase in the army and the abolition of the National Guard as a preparedness measure. Americans divided on the issue, with organizations like the National Security League proposing strongest military forces, and others like the League to Enforce Peace opposing military growth. Congress passed a modified National Defense Act in June 1916 which increased the army from about 90,000 to 220,000 and enlarged the National Guard under federal control. In August, over $500 mln was appropriated for naval construction. The additional costs were met by increased taxes on the wealthy. Germany announced on January 31,1917, that it would sink all ships, belligerent or neutral, without warning in a large war zone off the coasts of the Allied nations in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean . Wilson broke diplomatic relations with Germany on February 3. During February and March several American merchant ships were sunk by submarines.

A Declaration of war against Germany was passed by Senate on April 4 by a vote of 82 to 6, and the House on April 6 by vote of 373 to 50. It was signed by Wilson on April 6, 1917.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Make up a table: “The main battles on the Eastern and Western fronts”

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Make up a table: “The aims of belligerent states in the WW I”.

Home tasks: read «Международные отношения до первой мировой войны» and prepare annotation.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.183-192

2.Дебидур Ф. Дипломатическая история Европы. 1814-1978. Ростов-на-Дону.1995, с.141-145

3.Деборин В.П. Международные отношения до первой мировой войны (1871-1914).- Саратов, 1978, с.112-134

4. История внешней политики России. Конец XIX–начало XX века. М., Международные отношения, 1999, с.454-455

5. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.76-93

Lecture 16

Theme of the lecture: Russia in the end of I WW

The objective of the lecture. To show the reasons of the revolutions in Russia. The main points of Brest-Litovsk Treaty. The demands of belligerent states on the final phase of the war.

Outline of the lecture

1. February and October Revolutions in Russia.

2. Brest-Litovsk Treaty.

3. WW I: the final phase (1917-1918)

The brief content of the lecture

I. On February 1917 was a series event that forced the collapse of the Romanov Dynasty. From March through November 1917, a Provisional Government ruled Russia. It tried to move the country toward democracy and keep Russia in the war as a loyal western ally. On the eve of Nicolas II-s abdication, the Petrograd Soviet, was formed from among the capital’s workers, and took control of the city administration. On October 23-24, Lenin returned from Finland to meet with strong resistance, the Committee agreed to create a Politburo to oversee the revolution. On November 6-7 Lenin and Trotsky ordered their supporters to seize the city/s transportation and communication centers. The Winter Palace was captured later that evening, along with most of Kerensky’s government. The Second Congress opened on November 7. At the Congress, it was announced that the government’s new Cabinet, officially called the Council of People’s Commissar (Sovnarcom) and responsible to a Central Executive Committee, would include Lenin a Chairman, and Josef Stalin as Commissar of Nationalities, Lev Trotsky as a Foreign Commissar. The Second Congress issued two decrees on peace and land. The first called for immediate peace without any consideration of indemnities or annexations, while the second adopted the Socialist Revolutionary land program that abolished private ownership of land as he could farm. Village councils would oversee distribution.

II. One of the cornerstones of Bolshevik propaganda throughout 1917 was a promise to end the war after they had seized power. Once in control, Soviet authorities issued a decree that called for immediate peace. As order collapsed among Russia Russian units along the Eastern Front, the Soviet government began to explore cease fire talks with Central Powers. Leon Trotsky, signed an initial armistice as a prelude to peace discussions with Germany at Brest-Litovsk on December 5, 1917. Trotsky was shocked by German demands for Poland, Lithuania, and Kurland when negotiations opened on December 22, 1917. This prompted him to return to Moscow for consultation with Bolshevik leadership. Three different perspectives emerged over German peace terms among the Soviet leadership:

• one group, led by Nikolay Bukharin, wanted the conflict to continue as a revolutionary war designed to spread Bolshevism;

• Lenin, however, felt the country needed peace for his government to survive;

• Trotsky wanted a policy of no war and no peace.

Negotiations in Brest-Litovsk can divide into three stages;

1. December 8-22, 1917;

2. January 9 till February 10, 1918;

3. March 1-2, 1918.

On the day the German offensive began, Lenin barely convinced Party leaders to accept Germany’s earlier offer. Berlin responded with harsher ones, which the Soviets grudgingly accepted, and were integrated into the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of March 3, 1918. According to its terms, in return for peace:

• Soviet Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Kurland, Estland;

• Kars, Ardagan and Batum on Caucasus were ceded to Turkey;

• Ukraine and Finland became independence states;

• Russia-German additional Treaty;

• Russian-Austrian additional Treaty;

• Russia-Bulgarian additional Treaty;

• Russian-Turkish additional Treaty;

The total area lost totaled 1,300,000 squre miles and included 62 mln people. After a long debates All-Russia Congress of Soviets ratificated Brest-Litovsk Treaty on March 15.

III. In August, 1918 Germany and Soviet government needed to sign additional treaty, which established line of demarcation in the profit of Germany.

• After revolution the Soviet Russia recognized independence of Finland on December 31, 1917;

• In December, 1917 Rumanian troops invaded to Bessarabia and in April 1918 joined to Rumania.

On January 8, 1918 President of the USA presented his specific peace plan in the form of the Fourteen Points:

• The first five points called for open rather than secret peace treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade, arm reduction, and a fair adjustment of colonial claims;

• The next eight points were concerned with the national aspirations of various European peoples and adjustment of an independent Poland;

• The fourteenth point, which he considered the most important and had espoused as early as 1916, called for “general association of nations” to preserve the peace. It was a replay to Peace Decree.

Emboldened by their victory over Russia, the German High Command including General Erich Ludendorff, decided to launch an all-out offensive against the Allies in France to win the war. Germans came within 37 miles of Paris. Ferdinand Foch, Supreme Commander of Allied Forces counterattacked and began to plan for offensive against the Germans.

• Stirred by the success on the Marne, the Allies began their offensive against Germans at Amiens on August 8, 1918. Ludendorff, who called this Germany’s “dark day” soon began to think of ways to end the fighting. By September 3, the Germans retreated to the Hindenburg Line. On September 26, Foch began his final offensive, and took the Hindenburg Line, the following day. Two days later, Lundendurf advised his government to seek a pece settlement. Over the next month, the French took St. Quenteen (Oct.1), while the British occupied Cambrai, Le Cateau, and Ostend.

• On September 14, Allied forces attacked in Salonica area of Macedonia and forced Bulgaria to sue for peace on September 29.

• On September 19, General Assembly began attack on Turkish forces at Magiddo in Palestine and quickly defeated them. In a rapid collapse of Turkish resistance, The British took Damascus, Aleppo, and finally forced Turkey from the war at the end of October.

• On October 24, the Italians began assault against Austria-Hungary at Vitto Veneto and forced Vienna to sign armistice terms on November 3.

• Kaiser Wilhelm II, pressured to abdicate, fled the country on November 9, and Republic declared.

On November 11, at 11 a.m., the war ended, with Germany accepting a harsh armistice.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare a small report: “Intervention of England and France to Soviet Russia’.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Prepare a theme: “Russia-Japanese relations after the I WW and Far-Eastern Republic foundation”.

Home tasks: read «Дипломатическая история Европы» and prepare annotation.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.193-199

2.Дебидур Ф. Дипломатическая история Европы. 1814-1978. Ростов-на-Дону.1995, с.113-119

3. История внешней политики России. Конец XIX–начало XX века. М., Международные отношения, 1999, с.454-455

4. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.83-93

Lecture 17

Theme of the lecture: Versailles-Washington System after the IWW.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the structure of Versailles-Washington system the main points of documents, which were formed on this Conference and influence of the decisions to development of international relations in Europe and the USA.

Outline of the lecture

1. Organization of Versailles Conference.

2. Decisions of Versailles Treaty.

3. Washington Treaty.

4. Treaties with Allies of Germany.

5. League of the Nations Organization Foundation.

The brief content of the lecture

I. Problems of the regulations with Germany and it’s Allies were solved on the Paris Conference, which held on January 18-June 28,1919. Representatives of 27 states took part in it, which were divided into 4 groups:

1. The USA, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, took part in all meetings.

2. Britain dominions and 19 other states discussed only problems concerned their states.

3. Four Latin American states, which broke diplomatic relations with Germany and Allies.

4. Neutral states and states, which should been formed. They took part in discussing only special questions.

Peaceful negotiations led on the base of “14 Points” of the USA President Woodrow Wilson:

• refusal of secret diplomacy;

• provision free trade;

• disarmament;

• the right of nations to self-determination;

• base of the postwar reorganization of the world;

In fact, main problems were decided by the USA, England, and France.

On June 1919 Versailles Treaty was concluded and consists of 440 points:

• Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France;

• Eupen, Malmedy and Morene were given to Belgium;

• Demilitarization zone was formed on left bank of Rhine, where Germany couldn’t build fortifications, to place military forces;

• Sahar coal ores were ceded to France;

• Germany recognized the Independence of Poland and passed some territories in Upper Silesia:

• Northern part of Shchlezwig was ceded to Denmark;

• Klaipeda was joined to Lithuania;

• States of Entente occupied Germany colonies in Africa and islands in Pacific Ocean;

• Kiao-Chao and German concessions in Shandon became a property of Japan. That’s why China refused to sign Versailles Treaty.

• The German army was limited to 100,000 men and officers with 12 year enlistments for the former and 25 for the latter. The General Staff was also abolished. The Navy lost its submarines and most offensive naval forces, and was limited to 15,000 men and officers. Aircraft and blimps were outlawed.

• A Reparations Commission was created to determine Germany’s war debt to the Allies, which figured in 1921 to be $32.4 billion, to be paid over an extended period of time. In meantime, Germany was to begin immediate payments in goods and raw materials.

As a result, Germany lost 1/8 of territory and 1/12 of population.

Washington Conference solved the problems of postwar regulations on the Far East and began on November 12, 1921.

The USA, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal, China and six states of Britain Empire took part. Soviet Russia and Fareast Republic weren’t invited to Washington. There were two problems discussed in Washington:

• Limitation of Navy;

• Pacific Ocean and Far East problems;

And were concluded the Five Power Treaty, the Four Power Treaty, the Nine Power Treaty.

The Treaty of St.Germain (September 10,1919). The Allied treaty with Austria legitimized the breaup of the Austrian Empire in the latter days of the war and saw Austrian territory ceded to Italy and the new states of Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia. The agreement included military restrictions and debt payments.

Treaty of Neuilly (November 27, 1919). Bulgaria lost territory to Yugoslavia and Greece and also had military limitation and reparations.

Treaty of Trianon (June 4,1920). The agreement with Hungary was delayed because of the communist revolution there in 1919 and Rumania’s occupation of Budapest. Hungary lost two-thirds of its prewar territory in the agreement to Rumania, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia and became almost purely Magyar nation.

Treaty of Serves (August 10,1920). This treaty lost Turkey most of its non-Turkish territory, principally in the Middle and Near East, and saw the Straits and the surrounding area internationalized and demilitarized.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare main reasons of foundation of the League of Nations, structure, the functions and aims of the Organization.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: find the main points of the Five Power Treaty, the Four Power Treaty, the Nine Power Treaty.

Home tasks: read «Дипломатическая история Европы» and make up a table “International relations eve the IWW in Europe”.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.200-209

2.Дебидур Ф. Дипломатическая история Европы. 1814-1978. Ростов-на-Дону.1995, с.221-226

3. Версаль и новая Восточная Европа.- Сб.статей. М., 1996, 210с.

4. Дипломатический словарь. В 3-х томах. Т.1, с.174-175

5. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.94-110

Lecture 18

Theme of the lecture: International relations in the first half of 20-s.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the main policy of European states concerning Soviet Russia and items of international economic conferences in the first half of the 20-s.

Outline of the lecture

5. Russia during the foreign intervention.

6. The Polish-Soviet War (1920).

7. Genoa and Hague Conferences.

8. Recognition of the USSR.

The brief content of the lecture

1. Soviet efforts after the October Revolution to openly foment revolution throughout Europe and Asia, its refusal to pay czarist debts, and international outrage over the murder of the royal family in 1919 isolated the country. However, adoption of the NEP required more integration with the outside world to rebuild the broken economy. During the civil war and foreign intervention Soviet government suggested to neighbor states and European states to conclude treaties and develop trade relations. In spite counteraction England and France, in 1920 peaceful treaties were concluded with Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland. In January 1920 economic blockade of Russia was abolished by Supreme Council of Entente.

2. Soviet-Polish relationships sharpened. On April 10, 1920 government of Poland agreed on negotiations with Russia in Borisovo, but was broken down by Poland. The new state under Marshall Jozef Pilsudski sought to take advantage of the Civil War in Russia to retake territory lost to Russia during the Polish Partitions in the late 18 th century. Polish forces invaded the Ukraine on April 25, and took Kiev two weeks later. A Soviet counteroffensive reached Warsaw by mid-August, but was stopped by the Poles. In 1919 the program of Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Great Britain G.Curzon about line between Poland and Soviet Russia was published. Both sides concluded an armistice on October 12 and signed the Treaty on March 12, 1921, that placed Poland’s border east of the Curzon Line.

3. In January 1922 Conference of the Entente states in Cannes took decision about convocation of economic conference European states in Genoa, where supposed to invite Soviet Russia, Germany, Austria, Bulgaria and Hungary. Agenda of Conference was confirmed by Supreme Council of Entente. One of the points of it was devoted to establishment of European peace and solution of financial and economic problems for relief payment Germany’s reparation. Soviet government actively prepared by conference. On February 22, RSFSR, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Ukraine, Byelorussia, Bukhara, Khorezm and Fareastern republics signed agreement, that Russia should been represented interests of all republics in Genoa. V.I.Lenin was approved as a head of delegation, and G.Chicherin (minister of Foreign Affairs) as a assistant. Later G.Chicherin was assigned a head of delegation (because of disease of Lenin). Conference was opened on April 10, 1922 in the palace San-Georgio. 29 states took part in it. G.Chicherin declared program of Soviet Republics about:

   • The establishment peace;

   • Reduction of arm race;

   • Prohibition of military means;

   • The establishment of economic relations with other states.

In Genoa Soviet-German negotiations continued, which began in Berlin. On April 16 Soviet-German agreement was signed in Rapallo (suburb of Genoa). Both sides obliged:

• Restore diplomatic and council relations;

• Establish and develop economic relations;

• Refusal from compensation military expenses, military damages mutually;

• Germany recognized nationalization of German state and private properties in Russia;

• Soviet Russia refused from Germany’s reparations.

So, Soviet Russia and Germany agreed to cancel their respective war debts and to establish formal diplomatic relations.

Significance of Treaty:

1. Establishment of peaceful relations between states, without annexation and contributes;

2. It was first juridical document about recognition of Soviet Russia by great capitalist state;

3. Treaty opened the great possibilities for development economic relations between two states and was profitable for Soviet Russia and Germany.

Participants of Conference debated problems about compensation pre-war debts and damages by Soviet Russia. Soviet delegation declared, that Russia ready to pay pre-war debts and damages, if western states compensated damages inflict by intervention. Genoa Conference finished on May 10, 1922, after delivering Memorandum of 8 states to Soviet de3legation. Agreement about convocation other economic Conference was reached in Genoa. Conference convened in Hague on June 15 – July 20, 1922, where the same states took part, except Germany. States of Entente tried to get recognition of debts czarist government and returning of foreign enterprises, which were nationalized. Russian delegation declared, that government ready to consider this demands, if states of Entente gave credits for restoration of economics and compensated damages of foreign intervention. The demands of both sides weren’t satisfied, that’s why Conference was fallen.

4. In 1923-1925 Soviet Russia established diplomatic relations with many states. But after foundation of the USSR new wave of anti-Soviet company began. On May 8, 1923 G.Curzon Minister of Foreign Affairs of England sent Memorandum to the Soviet government, which known in historical literature as a “Memorandum of Curzon”.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about Genoa or Hague Conferences.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control:

Home tasks: Make up a table “International Conferences after the IWW ”.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.210-219

2.Дебидур Ф. Дипломатическая история Европы. 1814-1978. Ростов-на-Дону.1995, с.198-203

3. Дипломатический словарь. В 3-х томах. Т.1, с.155, с.298

4. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.111-125

Lecture 19

Theme of the lecture: International relations in the second half of

20-s.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the main items of the Locarno Pact and Kellogg-Briand Pact. Relationships of the USSR with European states and it’s peculiarities.

Outline of the lecture

1. Locarno (Rhineland) Pact.

2. Anti-Soviet campaigns in 20-s

3. Kellogg-Briand Pact.

4. The brief content of the lecture

1. German problem was one of the important in 20-s. “Dawos plan” was elaborated by principle of Chicago Bank Ch.Dawos and adopted by London Conference. This plan should been help to restore of hard industry of Germany and loan 310 mln dollars was given to Germany. “Dawos plan” existed from 1924 till 1932 and helped Germany not only to restore, but to develop hard and military industries. In 1924 German government applied to the western states for entrance to the League of Nations.

Failure of the European powers to create some type of international system to prevent aggression was followed by regional efforts prompted by Germany’s visionary Foreign Minister, Gustav Stresemann, who in early 1925 approached England and France about an accord whereby Germany would expect its western borders in return for allied withdrawal from demilitarized Rhine area. Stresemann also wanted League membership for his country. While England responded with guarded regional interest, France hesitated. Six month after consultation with its eastern allies, Paris countered with a proposal that would include similar provisions for Gemany’s eastern borders, secured by a mutual assistance along with Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Poland, met a number of separate agreements.

1. Treaty of Mutual Guarantees (Rhineland Pact). Signed on October 16, 1925, by England, Italy, Germany, and Belgium, they guaranteed Germany’s western boundaries and accepted the Versailles settlement’s demilitarized zones. Italy and Great Britain agreed military to defend these lines if flagrantly violated.

2. Arbitration settlements. In the same spirit, Germany signed arbitration dispute accords that mirrored the Genoa Protocol with France, Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, and required acceptance of League-determined settlements (Geneva Protocol (1924) about disarmament and defined aggressor).

3. Eastern Accords. Since Germany would only agree to arbitration end not finalize its eastern border, France separately signed guarantees with Poland and Czechoslovakia to defend their frontiers.

4. Germany joins the League. The Locarno Pact went into force when Germany joined the League on September 10, 1926, acquiring, after some dispute. France and Belgium began to withdraw from Rhineland, though they left a token force there until 1930.

In the same time Germany suggested to use Rhineland Pact on the East and return lands, where lived 10-12 mln Germans, returning of Upper Silesia, Dantsig, Polish corridor and joining Austria.

2. Britain diplomacy attempted to organize anti-Soviet block and weakening influence of France in the South-Eastern Europe. Britain planned to include in this block Baltic states, Finland and Poland (to create Baltic Locarno). Soviet government offered to Baltic states to conclude Treaty about neutrality. In spite counteraction of England, In 1926 such treaty was concluded between the USSR and Lithuania. In 1927 trade treaty was concluded with Latvia. In 1926 Treaty about Friendship and neutrality was concluded between the USSR and Germany.

Britain government began anti-Soviet campaign. On May 27, 1927 Britain liquidated trade agreement 1921 and broke diplomatic relations with the USSR. On June 7, 1927 P.Voikov Council of the USSR in Poland was killed in Warsaw. This assassination was organized by Britain government, for aggravation Soviet-Polish relations, unleash a war between two states.

In 1926-1927 anti-soviet campaign began in Asia. On April 6, Soviet-Chinese conflict was provoked. Soviet embassy was plundered by Chinese soldiers. In the same day Soviet Council was attacked in Shanghai. Britain trade was damaged because of ceasation of export machines and equipment to the USSR. For example, during two years 1927-1928 Germany sold goods to the USSR more than England on 700 mln rubles.

1. In spite Versailles Treaty, Germany increased assignation for militarization. Technical equipment and construction of military ships began. Germany formed illegal army, which numbered 1 mln. In 30-s, campaign against decisions of Versailles Conference, revenge moods against France began.

2. Armracing began in France and its Allies: Rumania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.

3. Britain-Italian relations sharpened because of India.

4. Contradictions between the USA and Japan sharpened in Pacific Ocean. The USA was worried by moving Japan to the South.

In September 1925 session of the League of Nations adopted decision about convocation Conference for reduction and limitation weapons. For it’s preparation commission was formed, where the USA and the USSR were invited. A few projects were elaborated: France offered to create international army, England to reduce aviation and submarines.

In November 1927 Soviet delegation offered project about total and full disarmament.

4. The Pact of Paris (Kellogg-Briand Pact). The Locarno Pact heralded a new period in European relations known as the “Era of Locarno” that marked the end of post-war conflict and the beginning of a more normal period of diplomatic friendship and cooperation. It reached its peak, with the Franco-American effort in 1928 to seek an international statement to outlaw war. In December 1927, Frank Kellogg, the American Secretary of State, proposed that this policy be offered to all nations in the form of a treaty. On August 27, 1928, 15 countries, including the US, Germany, France< Italy, and Japan, signed this accord with some minor limitations, which renounced war as a means of solving differences as a tool of national policy. Within five years, 50 other states signed the agreement. On September 1928, People Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the USSR M.Litvinov sent act about joining of the Soviet Union to this Pact. On February 9, 1929 the USSR, Poland, Rumania, Estonia and Latvia signed Protocol about acting of Kellogg-Briand Pact. Afterwards Lithuania, Turkey and Iran joined to this Protocol. In 1929 Laborite Party won. On October 3, 1929 Protocol was signed about restoration of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Great Britain. On August 16, 1929 diplomatic relations between the USSR and China was broken. After defeat of Chinese militarists and Russian White Guard Soviet-Chinese conflict was regulated. On December 22, Soviet-Chinese Protocol about restoration of diplomatic relation was signed.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about Locarno Pact.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Compare decisions of Locarno Pact and Geneva Protocol (1924).

Home tasks: Find information about home policy of Germany in the second half of 20-s.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.220-226

2.Дебидур Ф. Дипломатическая история Европы. 1814-1978. Ростов-на-Дону.1995, с.227-229

3. Дипломатический словарь. В 3-х томах. Т.1, с.298

4. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.111-125

Lecture 20

Theme of the lecture: International relations in the world economic crisis.

The objective of the lecture. The main reasons of world economic crisis and regulation of economic and political relations in 1929-1933.

Outline of the lecture

1. Paris Conference (1929). The Young Plan.

2. Pan-European plan.

3. London Naval Disarmament Treaty (1930).

4. World Disarmament Conference in Geneva (1932).

The brief content of the lecture

1. In the end of 20-s beg. 30-s world economic crisis broke out. During two years level of production fell on 40%. Unemployment numbered 30 mln in 1932. In 1930 there was held conference of representatives of big banks from 48 states in Washington. Germany, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria refused from payment of reparations. Versailles system collapsed. German government demanded to convene conference and revise reparations and “Dawos plan”. On February 11, 1929 conference for revision of “Dawos plan” was held in Paris. American banker O.Young was a chairman. France was most interested state in reparations, because France should been paid debts for military techniques, raw materials and food, which were delivered in I WW from Britain and the USA at the expense of reparations. That’s why France was interested, that lowing of German reparations was compensated. Conference elaborated document, which was called a “Plan of Young”, according which Germany should been paid 2 billion during 37 years annual. So, “Young Plan” decreased annual German reparation on 29% in compare “Dawos plan”. Conference adopted other decrees, which easier German’s position:

   1. Reparation commission was liquidated;

   2. Control over the railways and enterprises was abolished;

   3. Withdrawal of troops from Rhineland was assigned by middle 1930.

“Young Plan” entered in 1930, but in a year Germany applied to the USA for aid, because of didn’t pay next reparations. The Depression had a dramatic effect on the German economy and politics. German exports, which had peaked at 13,5 billion marcs in 1929, fell to 12 billion marcs in 1930, and to 5,7 billion marcs two years later. Imports suffered the same fate, going from 14 billion marcs in 1928 to 4,7 billion marcs in 1932. The country’s national income dropped 20% during this period, while unemployment rose from 1,320,00 in 1929 to 6 million by January 1932. This meant that 43% of the German work without jobs (compared to one-quarter of the work force in the U.S.). That’s why G.Guver – president of the USA proposed to impose a moratorium on reparations and military debts. This action damaged France, which lost 2 billion francs annual. In 1932 German reparations were liquidated by decisions of Lozano Conference.

2. On May 17, 1930 Minister of Foreign Affairs of France A.Briand applied to 27 states of Europe to organize European Federal Union. Supposed, that this Union would been have two bodies:

   1. European Conference;

   2. European Committee (as an executive body).

This project was directed against influence of England in Europe, and in the League of Nations. Also plan was directed against the USSR. But Britain, Germany and Italy didn’t support this plan.

In the same time another plan came to the life – plan of the Unification of Germany and Austria. On March 19, 1931, Austria and Germany signed customs agreement. Refer to the decision of Versailles Treaty, prohibiting unification of Germany and Austria, France sent complaint to the International Court in Hague. On September 5, 1931 International Tribunal decreed, that Customs Union violated obliges of Austria.

3.In March 1930, Great Britain and the U.S. sought to expand the naval limitation terms of the Five Power Treaty of 1922. France and Italy could not agree on terms, while the U.S., England, and Japan accepted mild reduction of military ships. The tonnage of naval of three states was defined:

a) England – 339 th.tons

b)The USA – 323

c)Japan – 209

Common tonnage of submarines for three states w3as the same – 52,7 th. tons. Economy of all states fevered. Moratorium for reparations didn’t stop credit crisis. The British government abandoned the gold standard on September 21, 1931 and adopted a series of high tariffs on imports. The gold standard was abolished by other European states.

4.World economic crisis led to political crisis, and complication of relations between sates. World disarmament Conference, attended by 62 countries was opened in 1932 in Geneva. Though the USA and the USSR weren’t members of the League of Nations, were invited to Conference.

1. The USSR proposed own project of total disarmament. France considered, that preservation of Versailles system, could be create security in Europe;

2. Britain offered prohibition of submarines, and limitation of armies;

3. Germany suggested equalizing its military forces with other states, and supposed that for preservation of the balance of power in Europe, strong Germany should been created, for counteraction to France and the S.U.

In December 1932 Great Britain organized the Conference of five states in Geneva: England, France, the USA, Italy and Germany. Resolution was adopted, which gave equality to Germany in provision of security. So, Germany was recognized equality in rights since 1918.

In 1930 French government initiated negotiations about development of economic and trade relations with the USSR, and negotiations about military Pact simultaneously. On November 29, 1932 Soviet-French military Pact was concluded.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about formation of Small Entente.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Find and analyze the project “Pan-Europe”.

Home tasks: Write a short essay: “Reasons, features and consequences of world economy crisis”.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.227-230

2.Дебидур Ф. Дипломатическая история Европы. 1814-1978. Ростов-на-Дону.1995, с.245-250

Lecture 21

Theme of the lecture: Foundation of two aggressive powers: in Europe and Far East.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the main doctrines, which were formed in Europe and Far East in the first half of the 30-s and consequences of this doctrines. Reaction of the leaders of European states to this doctrines.

Outline of the lecture

1. Tanaka’s Memorandum.

2. League of the Nations actions. Commission of C.Attlee.

3. Germany in the first half of the 30-s. Hitler becomes Chancellor.

4. Foreign policy of Hitler.

5. International relations in the first half of the 30-s.

The brief content of the lecture

1. By 1932 economic crisis reached peak: by 1931, international attention increasingly turned to growing acts or threats of aggression in Europe and Asia, and transformed Europe from a world that hoped for internal peace to a continent searching desperately for ways to contain growing aggression.

In summer 1927 Eastern Conference was convened under general Tanaka. Secret document, known as “A Tanaka Memorandum” about policy Japan in China was elaborated. The main aim of document: measures against unification and independence of China. Conquest of north-eastern provinces of China and Mongolia. Memorandum supposed moving of Japan to India and Central Asia, and supposed was with Russia in Manchuria.

On September 19, 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army, acting independently of the government in Tokyo, began the gradual conquest of Manchuria after fabricating an incident at Mukden to justify their actions. Ultimately, they created a puppet state, Manchukuo, under the last Chinese emperor, Henry P’u-i.

2. On September 1931 representatives of China applied to League of Nations with request to stop of Japanese aggression. China’s League protest resulted in the creation of an investigatory commission under the Earl of Litton that criticized Japan’s actions and recommended a negotiated settlement that would have allowed Japan to retain most of it’s conquest. Commission consisted of representatives Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany and the USA (which didn’t member of the UNO).

Japan continued military actions and reached Chinese Eastern Railway and plundered trains, arrested Soviet officials. Before, in December 1931 the S.U. offered to Japan sign non-aggression Pact. On February 24, 1833 Assembly of the League of Nations adopted special Resolution, which planned regulation the situation in North-Eastern China on the base of international documents: Charter of League, Pact of Briand-Kellog and Washington Nine Power Treaty. Japan responded by resigning from the League on January 24, 1933.

3. In 1924 book of Hitler “Mein Kampf” was published, where announced program of aggressive actions of fascist national-socialist Party of Germany.

In 1932 political crisis took place in Germany. On January 30, 1933 Hitler agreed with Von Papen about division power, after what President of Germany Hindenburg agreed to create government of “national concentration”. Hitler was appointed as Chancellor, Von Papen – as vice-Chancellor.

Hitler dissolved the Reichstag and called for new elections on March 5. Using Presidenttial decree powers, he initiated a violent anticommunist campaign. On February 27, the Reichstag burned, which enabled Hitler to get Hindenburg to issue the “Ordinances for the Protection of German State and Nation”, that removed all civil press liberties as part of a “revolution” against Communism. On Marc 14, E.Telman a leader of Communist Party was arrested, and Leipzig process was held.

Once Hitler had full legislative power, he began a policy of coordination to bring all independent organizations and agencies throughout Germany under his control. All political parties were outlawed or forced to dissolve, and on July 14, 1933, the Nazi Party became the only legal party in Germany. In addition, on-Aryans and Nazi opponents were removwd from the civil service, the court system, and higher education. On May 2, 1933, the government declared strikes illegal, abolished labor unions, and later forced all workers to join the German Labor Front under Robert Ley. Finally, the secret police or Gestapo was created on April 24, 1933 under Hermann Goring to deal with opponents and operate concentration camps. The Party had its own security branch , the SD under Reinhard Heydrich.

4. Hitler’s international policies were closely linked to his rebuilding efforts to give him a strong economic and military base for an active, aggressive, independent foreign policy.

• On July 15, 1933 “Pact of Fourth” was signed by England, France, Germany and Italy, which was proposed by B.Mussolini. 10 states signed this treaty.

• On October 14, 1933, Hitler had his delegates walk out of the Disarmament Conference because he felt the Allied powers had reneged on an earlier promise to grant Germany arms equality.

• The Reich simultaneously quit the League of Nations.

• On January 26, 1934, Germany signed a non-aggression Pact with Poland, which ended Germany’s traditional anti-Polish foreign policy and broke France’s encirclement of Germany via the Little Entente. (L.E. was formed in 1920-1921 by Czechoslovakia, Rumania, and Yugoslavia and existed till 1938).

• This was followed by the Saarland’s overwhelming decision to return Germany.

• The culmination of Hitler’s foreign policy moves, though, came with his March 15, 1935, announcement that Germany would no longer be bound by military restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles, that it had already created an air force (Ludwaffe), and that the Reich would institute a draft to create an army of 500,000 men.

• On October 14, 1933 Germany resigning from the League of Nations.

5. After election of T.Rousvelt as a President of the USA, diplomatic relations were established between the USA and the USSR on November8, 1933.

In 1933 the USSR established diplomatic relations with Spain and Uruguay.

On September 3, 1933 Soviet-Italian Pact about Friendship, non-aggression and neutrality.

Refusal of Germany from Versailles Treaty and militarization of economy threatened to European states, and especially to France. That’s why Minister of Foreign Affairs of France L.Bartu proposed a plan forming Eastern Pact. In 1934 negotiations between France and the S.U. began. Germany, the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland should been entered to this Pact. Germany refused to take part in negotiations, Poland followed to it.

On February 9, 1934, Greece, Rumania, Turkey, and Yugoslavia signed Balkan Pact in Anthenes, for mutual defense of Balkan borders, but Bulgaria and Albania didn’t join to them.

Government of Germany prepared annexation of Austria. Dolfus – Federal Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria protested to the Anschluss. On June 30, 1934 Dolfus was killed by Nazists

League of Nations applied to the USSR with proposal about membership. On September 18, League adopted Decree about inclusion the USSR to League as a permanent member.

On October 9, 1934 French Minister of Foreign Affairs Bartu and king of Yugoslavia Alexander were killed in Marsel. Bartu was replaced by Levalle - supporter of Hitler.

So, the region of aggression was formed in Europe.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about Таnaka’s Memorandum.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Prepare essay about aims of “Little Entente” and “Balkan Pact”.

Home tasks: Find information about home policy of Germany in the first half of 30-s.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.231-237

2.Дебидур Ф. Дипломатическая история Европы. 1814-1978. Ростов-на-Дону.1995, с.241-248

3. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.126-140

Lecture 22

Theme of the lecture: Anti-Hitler Coalition foundation.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the aggressive policy of Germany and Italy in the second half of 30-s and counteractions of the European states to it.

Outline of the lecture

1. Italian foreign policy. Invasion to Ethiopia.

2. Meeting at Stresa (1935).

3. The Spanish Civil War.

4. Anti-Comintern Pact.

5. Annexation of Austria by Germany.

6. Annexation of Sudetland by Germany. Munich Conference.

The brief content of the lecture

1. Since the late 1920-s, Mussolini began to support German claims for revision of the Treaty of Versailles to strengthen ties with that country and to counterbalance France, a nation he disliked. In an effort to counter the significance of France’s Little Entente with Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Rumania, Mussolini concluded the Rome Protocols with Austria and Hungary, which created a protective bond of friendship between the three countries. The first test of the new alliance between Italy and Austria came in July 1934, when German directed Nazis tried to seize control of the Austrian government. Mussolini, opposed to any German Anschluss with Austria, mobilized Italian forces along the northern Renner Pass as a warning to Hitler. The coup collapsed from lack of direct German aid.

Ethiopia (Abyssinia) became an area of strong Italian interest in the 1880s. The coastal region was slowly brought under Italian control until the Italian defeat at Ethiopian hands at Adowa in 1894. In 1906, the country’s autonomy was recognized and in 1923 it joined the League of Nations. Acquisition of Ethiopia would enable him to join Italy’s two colonies of Eritrea and Somalia, which could become a new area of Italian colonization. Mussolini, who had been preparing for war with Ethiopia since 1932, established a military base at Wal in Ethiopian territory. Beginning in December 1934, a series of minor conflicts took place between two countries, which gave Mussolini an excuse to plan for the full takeover of the country in the near future.

Mussolini refused to accept arbitration over Ethiopia , and used Europe’s growing concern over Hitler’s moves there to cover his own secret designs. On October 2, 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia, while the League of Nations, which had received four appeals from Ethiopia since January about Italian territorial transgression, finally voted to adopt economic sanctions against Mussolini. Mussolini was convinced he could act with impunity when he realized the League was reluctant to do more than make verbal objections to Italian actions. Unfortunately, the League failed to stop shipments of oil to Italy and continued to allow it to use the Suez Canal. On May 9, 1936 Italy formally annexed the country and joined to Somalia and Eritrea, which now became known as Italian East Africa.

2. In response to Hitler’s announcement of German rearmament in violation of the Treaty of Versailles on March 16, 1935, France, England and Italy met at Stresa in Northern Italy on April 11-14, and concluded agreements that pledged joint military collaboration if Germany moved against Austria or along the Rheine. The three states criticized German’s recent decision to remilitarize and appealed to the Council of the League of Nations on the matter. The League Council created an investigatory committee to search for economic means punish the Reich. Great Britain’s decision, however, to separately protect its naval strength vi-avis a German buildup in Anglo-German Naval Treaty of June 18, 1935, effectively compromised the significance of Stresa Front.

3. The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) is usually seen as a rehearsal for World War II because of outside intervention. The government of the Spanish Republic (established in 1931) caused resentment among conservatives by it’s programs, including land reform and an election victory by popular front of republican and radical parties (1936), right-wing generals in July began a military insurrection. Francisco Franco, stationed at the time in Spanish Morocco, emerged as a leader of this revolt, which became a devastating civil war lasting nearly three years. German air force units were sent to aid the fascist forces of Franco and participated in bombardments of Madrid, Barcelona and Guernica. Italy sent troops, tanks, and other materials. The Spanish Civil War was a factor in brining together Mussolini and Hitler in a Rome-Berlin Axis.

4. In February 1936, in the result of fascism revolt, government of Khiroto came to the power. On the Far East aggressive policy of Japan continued. In February 1936, Germany and Japan had signed the Anti-Comintern Pact. Ostensibly directed against international communism, this was the basis for a diplomatic alliance between those countries. Anti-Comintern Pact consist of three articles:

   • to inform each other about activity of Comintern mutual and fight against it;

   • to recommend any third state, threaten by Communists to join Pact;

   • to establish 5-years term of this agreement.

One year later, Italy adhered to this agreement on November 6, 1937, becoming Germany’s ally in World War II. So, in the end 1937 Triple Union (Germany, Italy, Japan) was formed. Japan recognized annexation of Abyssinia, Germany and Italy recognized Manchukuo government.

5. In 1937 the was Nazi-inspired agitation in the Baltic port of Danzig, a city German in its population, but which had been made a free city under the terms of the Versailles Treaty. In 1938 Hitler pressured the Austrian chancellor to make concessions and when this did not work, German troops annexed Austria (the Anschluss). On March 13, 1938 Austria joined to Germany. Again Britain and France took no effective action, and about 6 million Austrians were added to Germany.

6. Hitler turned next to Czechoslovakia. 3 mln persons of German origin lived in the Sudetland, a bordeland Germany and Czechoslovakia given to Czechoslovakia in order to provide it with a more defensible boundary. These ethnic Germans agitated against the democratic government. Hitler used the Sudet Nazi Party to provoke a crisis. He then claimed to interfere as the protector of a persecuted minority. Chamberlain twice flew to Germany in person to get German terms. The second time, Hitler’s increased demands led to mobilization and other towards war. On September 29, 1938 four-power conference was held in Munich with Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain, and Daladier in attendance. Hitler’s terms were accepted in the Munich Agreement. Neither Czechoslovakia nor the USSR was in attendance. Britain and France, despite the French alliance with Czechoslovakia, put pressure on the Czech government to force it to comply with German demdnds. At the same time the Poles seized control of Teschen, and Hungary (with support of Italy and Germany and over the protests of the British and French) seized 7,500 square miles of Slovakia. By the concessions forced on her at Munich, Czechoslovakia lost its frontier defenses and was totally unprotected against any further German encroachments.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about Munich Conference.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Explain terms “Anschluss”, “axis”, with what events were connected this terms.

Home tasks: Find information about III Communist International, and leaders of it.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.238-249

2. Документы по истории «Мюнхенского сговора»- Политиздат, 1979, с.154-156, с.228-229

3. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.141-153

Lecture 23

Theme of the lecture: International relations eve and in the beg. WWII.

The objective of the lecture. Students should know the main military operations of Hitler, beginning of the WWII, the main reasons of war.

Outline of the lecture

1. International relations in the 1939.

2. Beginning of the WWII.

3. The “White War” Between the USSR and Finland.

4. The German attack on Denmark and Norway.

5. Capitulation of France.

6. Far East events.

The brief content of the lecture

1. In March 1939, Hitler annexed most of the Czech state while Hungary conquered Ruthenia.

• At almost the same time Germany annexed Memel from Lithuania.

• In April, Mussolini, taking advantage of distractions created by Germany, landed an army in Albania and seized that Balkan state in a campaign lasting about one week.

• Britain and France made military preparations. Guarantees were given to Poland, Rumania, and Greece.

• On August 23, 1939 a German-Soviet treaty about non-aggression was concluded. A secret protocol provided that in the event of a “territorial rearrangement” in Eastern Europe the two powers would divide Poland. Soviet’s share of Poland extended approximately to the Curzon Line. Later, in June 1940, the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia joined to the S.U.

2. WWII began with the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, followed by British and French declarations of war against Germany on September 3. The German attack (known as the “Blizkreig” or ‘Lightning war”) overwhelmed the poorly equipped Polish army, which could not resist German tanks and airplanes. The outcome was clear after the first few days of fighting, and organized resistance ceased within a month. Nazi Germany formally annexed the port of Danzig and the Polish Corridor and some territory along the western Polish border. Central Poland was turned into German protectorate called the Government-General.

3. In 1939 the S.U. proposed Finland exchange some territories on the border between two states, especially for territory adjacent to Leningrad (only 20 miles from the border, offered the territory twice more in the Northern Karelia). Finnish refusal on November 30, 1939 led to the Soviet attack. Finns received some supplies from Sweden, Britain, and France. Soviet army broke Mannergeim Line and on March 12, 1940 treaty was concluded. Finland ceded the Karelian Isthmus, Viipuri, the Western and the Northern costs of Ladoga Lake, and a naval base Hangoe. Britain and France prepared forces to aid the Finns, but by the time they were ready to act the Finns had been defeated.

4. On April 9, Denmark and Norway were simultaneously attacked. Denmark was quickly occupied. The British and French responded by sending naval and military forces to Narvik and Trondheim in an effort to assist the Norwegians and to capture some bases before the Germans could overrun the entire country. They were too slow and showed little initiative, and within a few weeks the forces were withdrawn, taking the Norwegian government with them into exile to London.

5. On May 10, the main German offensive was launched against France. Belgium and the Netherlands were simultaneously attacked. Paris fell to the Germans in mid-June. In this crisis Paul Reynaud succeeded Edward Daladier as Premier. On June 16 th Reynaud resigned in favor of a government headed by aged Marshal Petain, one of the heroes of WWI. The Petain government quickly made peace with Hitler. The complete collapse of France quickly came as a tremendous shock to the British and Americans. Hitler’s forces remained in occupation of the Northern part of France, including Paris. Petain established their capital at Vichy and followed a policy of collaboration with their capital former enemies. A few Frenchmen, however, joined the Free French movement started in London by General Charles de Gaulle.

With the fall of France, Hitler began preparations for invading Britain (operation “Sea Lion”). The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) under Herman Goring began its air offensive against the British in the summer of 1940. Even before the offensive against France, on May 7 and 8 an attack was launched in the House of Commons on Prime Minister Chamberlain. Chamberlain, a man of peace who had never properly mobilized the British war effort or developed an effective plan of action, fell from power. A government was formed under W.Churchill, whose warning of the German danger and the need for British rearmament all during the 1930s made him Chamberlain’s logical successor. The opposition Labor Party agreed to join in a coalition, with Clement Attlee, becoming deputy prime minister. Several other Laborites followed his lead by accepting cabinet posts. This gave Britain a government which eventually led the nation to final victory but which could do little in 1940 to prevent the defeat of France.

Mussolini declared war on both France and Britain on June 10^th. On October 28, 1940, Mussolini began all-advised invasion of Greece from Italian bases in Albania. Within a few weeks, the Greeks repulsed the Italians and drove them back into Albania. In summer Italy launched offensive to the Eastern Africa and conquered British Somali.

6. On July 7, 1937 a full-scale Sino-Japanese war began with clash between Japanese and Chinese at the Marco Polo Bridge in Peking. On November 3, 1938, Prince Fumimoro Konoye government issued a statement on “A New Order in the East Asia”. This statement envisaged the integration of Japan, Manchuria, and China into one “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” under Japanese leadership.

In 1938 conflict between the USSR and Japan took place at Khasan Lake. In May 1939 Japanese army invaded to Mongolia, with which the USSR had treaty about mutual aid. At Khalkin-Gol Japanese army was defeated. In July 1940, the Konoye government was reformed with General Hideki Tojo as minister of war. Japan’s policy of friendship with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy was consolidated with the signing of a Triple Alliance on September 27, 1940 in Berlin. The war in Europe gave Japan further opportunities for expansion. Concessions were obtained from the Vichy government in French. Indochina and Japanese bases were established there.

All this events led to worsening relations between Japan and the two states in a position to oppose her expansion – the Soviet Union and the United States.

Either the USA and Britain needed in each other. The USA dangered defeat of England, because Germany would be dominated not only in the Western Europe, but on the Middle and Far East. England needed in aid of the USA, especially after military failure at Dunkirk and capitulation of France. Hitler began to shift his forces to the east an invasion to Russia.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about Soviet-German non-aggression treaty.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Explain terms “Blizkreig”, “Winter War”, with what events were connected this terms.

Home tasks: Find information about Far East events in 1937-1941.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.250-258

2. Кулиш В.М. У порога войны.- Политиздат, 1989, с.300-301

3. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.155-169

Lecture 24

Theme of the lecture: International relations during the Great Patriotic

The objective of the lecture. Students should know decisions of all International Conferences in 1941-1945 and its influence on the results of the WWII.

Outline of the lecture

1. Barbarossa – the Attack on Russia.

2. International Relations in 1941-1942.

3. Moscow Conference (1943).

4. Teheran Conference (1943).

5. Dumbarton-Oaks Conference (1944).

6. Yalta Conference (1945).

The brief content of the lecture

1. The German invasion of the USSR began June 22, 1941. The invasion force of three million included Finnish, Rumanian, Hungarian, and Italian contingents along with German and advanced on a broad front about 2,000 miles. In the first season of fighting the Germans seized Western regions of Russia and of the Ukraine, advancing to the Crimean Peninsula in the South. They surrounded the city Leningrad, and came within about 25 miles of Moscow. In November the enemy actually entered the suburbs. But Soviet resistance (strong despite heavy losses) brought the invasion to a halt. During the winter a Russian counterattack pushed the Germans back from Moscow and saved the capital.

2. In August 1941 the USSR and England brought the troops in Iran. Soviets in the North, England in the South. Its measures prevented invasion of Germany to Iran. Through the Iran, the SU provided by military equipment and raw materials from the USA and England.

• On December 7, 1941 Japanese army attacked the American fleet in Pearl Harbor. On December 8, 1941 the USA declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the USA. Great Britain and the USA then established the Combined Chiefs of Staff, headquartered in Washington, to direct Anglo-American military operations.

• On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 nations met in Washington and signed the Declaration on the United Nations, pledging themselves to the principles of the Atlantic Charter and promising not to make a separate peace with their common enemies.

• Anglo-American ideas about what the postwar world should be like were expressed by Roosevelt and Churchill at their meeting of the coast of Newfoundland in August 1941. This was a general statement of goals:

2. Restoration of the sovereignty and self-government of nations conquered by Hitler;

3. Free access to world trade and resources;

4. Cooperation to improve living standards and economic security;

5. Peace that would ensure freedom from fear and want stop to use of force and aggression as instruments of national policy, what Roosevelt had earlier called “The Four Freedoms”.

The main problems in 1942-1943 was opening of the Second Front. Churchill declared the opening Second Front impossible in 1942, because of offensive in Africa against General Erwin Roomel’s Africa Korps. In May 1943, Roomel’s army surrendered. But in 1943 the Second Front wasn’t opened too. The German forces launched a second offensive in the summer of 1942. This attack concentrated on southern part of the front, aiming at the Caucasus and vital oil fields around the Caspian Sea. At Stalingrad on the Volga River the Germans were stopped Hitler refused to allow the strategic retreat urged by his generals. As a result, the Soviet forces crossed the river north and south of the city and surrounded 22 German divisions. On January 31, 1943 the German commander Friedrich Paulus surrendered the remnants of his army. From then on the Soviets were almost always on the offensive. In 1943, instead opening of the Second Front in France, Allies landed in Italy. Allied armies under George C.Patton invaded Sicily from Africa in July 1943. Moving from Sicily, the Allied Armies invaded the Italian mainland in September. Benito Mussolini had already fallen from power, and his successor, Marshal Pietro Badoglio, surrendered. In September 1943 Italy surrendered.

3.On January 14-25, 1943 Conference was held in Casablanca. F.Roosevelt and W.Churchill declared a policy of unconditional surrender for “all enemies”.

In October 1943, Conference Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, USA, and Great Britain was held in Moscow. Next problems were discussed:

• Reduction of terms of war;

• Postwar arrangement of Germany;

• About Italy;

• About Austria;

• About provision security in postwar period and foundation World Organization after the war was over;

• International European Commission was formed;

• Conditions of the surrender of the states Hitler’s coalition was debated;

• SU agreed to enter the war against Japan after Germany was defeated.

Issued on December 1, 1943, after Roosevelt met with General Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo from November 22 to 26, the Declaration of Cairo called for Japan’s unconditional surrender and stated that all Chinese territories occupied by Japan would be returned to China and Korea would be free and independent.

4. At the Teheran Conference, convened on November 28, 1943 and lasted until December 1 st by all three major Allied leaders, decision reached by Roosevelt and Churchill to open second front, by invasion France in May 1944. Stalin promised to open a simultaneous Soviet offensive. Stalin confirmed a pledge enter the war against Japan after the war with Germany. “Declaration about Iran” was adopted. Three leaders declared about preserving independence of Iran, it sovereignty and territorial inviolability. They also laid the foundation for a post-war organization - the United Nations – which like the earlier League of Nations was supposed to help regulate international relations and keep the peace and ensure friendly cooperation between the nations of the world.

5. In August-September, 1944 convened non-official conference in Dumbarton-Oaks (near Washington). Representatives of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and China took part in it, where Charter of World Organization – the UNO was elaborated. Aims, principles, membership and structure of Organization.

6. The Yalta Conference was the second attended personally by Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt. It lasted from the 4 th to the 11 th of February 1945.

• Leaders defined the exact date and place of the convocation of World Organization for adoption of Charter – 25 th April, in San-Francisco.

• A plan to divide Germany into zones of occupation, which had been devised in 1943 by committee under British Deputy Prime Minister Clement Attlee, was formally accepted with the addition of a fourth zone taken from the British and American zones for the French to occupy, Berlin, which lay within the Soviet Zone, was divided into four zones of occupation also.

• A Declaration on Liberated Europe promised to assist liberated nations in solving problems through elections and democratic means.

• In Poland, Soviet-Polish border was established along the line of Curzon. It was agreed that the nucleus of the post-war Polish government would be Lublin Committee.

• In the Far East, in return for his agreement to enter the war against Japan after Germany’s defeat, Stalin was promised the southern part of Sakhalin Island, the Kurile Islands, a lease on the naval base at Port Arthur, a pre-eminent in control of the commercial port of Dairen, and the use of Manchurian railroads. On May 1, Berlin was surrendered. On May 9, Germany signed Act of unconditional surrender.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about Casablanca Conference .

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Explain terms “Barbarossa”, “Atlantic Charter”, with what events were connected these terms.

Home tasks: Find information about Declaration of Cairo.

List of the reference on the theme

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.250-259

2. Советский Союз в годы Великой Отечественной войны.- М., 1985, с.613-614, с.662-664

3. Вторая мировая война в воспоминаниях У.Черчилля, Шарля де Голля и др.- М., 1990, 556с.

4. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.155-169

Lecture 25

Theme of the lecture: Problems of the postwar regulations.

Outline of the lecture.

1. Potsdam conference.

2. The atomic bomb and the Defeat of Japan.

3. Council of ministers of the foreign affairs. Paris conference (1946-1947).

The brief content of the lecture .

I. In June 1945 Declaration of the USSR , USA, England and France “About defeat of Germany” was proclaimed. Main principles about postwar regulations and decision German problems were adopted on Potsdam conference< which was held in July,1945. The meeting confirmed in detail, arrangements regarding Germany:

• Demilitarization

• Democratization

• Denazification

International military tribunal was formed by the USSR, USA, England and France.

The USSR, USA and England contracted about reparations.

New borders were defined.

II. On August 9, 1945, according Crimean conference, the USSR waged war with Japan. Eve, on August 6, A mericans dropped bomb on Herosima , on August 9, Nagasaki. On September, 1945 Act about capitulation was signed.

III. On September 6, 1945 Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs began prepparation of peace treaties with Italy, Finland, Rumania, Bulgaria and Hungary.

1. the territorial problems about borders between:

• Greece and Bulgaria

• Finland and the USSR

• Hungary and Rumania

• Italy and Yugoslavia

2. Economic problem. Discusses about reparations and principles of equality possibilities.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report: “Foundation of bipolar system of International Relations. Split of Europe”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Explain terms “Denazification”, “Democratization”, “Demilitarization”, “Demonopolization” with what events were connected these terms.

Home tasks: Find information about Nurnberg Process.

List of the reference on the theme:

1. История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.259-267

2. Тегеран-Ялта-Потсдам. Сб.документов. М.,1971, 634с.

3. Филатов А.М. Германский вопрос: от раскола к объединению.- М., 1993, 231с.

4. Орлов М.И., Андросов И.Ю. Проблема Западного Берлина в международных отношениях. 1945-1975.- Вопросы истории.1977,№8, с.43-47

5. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.171-186

Lecture 26

Theme of the lecture: The United Nations Organization.

Outline of the lecture

1. UNO foundation: objectives and structure.

2. The General Assembly.

3. The Security Council.

4. The Secretariat.

5. The economic and Social Council.

6. The Trusteeship Council.

7. The International Court of Justice.

The brief content of the lecture

1. When the League of Nations was not yet formally dissolved and the Second World War not ended, preparations for the formation of a successor international organization were in progress through the Atlantic Charter of 14 August 1941 and the Moscow Declaration of October 1943 of the four major allied powers.

The UNO was formally founded on October 24, 1945, with 51 original member signing its Charter.

The purpose for which the UNO was founded are reflected in its Articles and organizational structure. The objectives of the UNO can be divided into 3 categories:

• the objectives pertaining to political and security purposes;

• the economic and social objectives;

• the legal objectives;

Article I of the Charter states the first and the second kinds of objectives:

• maintain international peace and security;

• to develop friendly relations among nations;

• to achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character;

• promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms of all;

• the International Court of Justice has been founded to realize its legal objectives of providing justice on the basis of international law and thus help arrive at pacific settlement of international disputes.

The Charter has created some principal organs for functioning of the UN. These are:

1. The General Assembly

2. The Security Council

3. The Economic and Social Council

4. The Trusteeship Council

5. The International Court of Justice

6. The Secretariat

II. General Assembly consists of the representatives of all member states of the organization.

• Each member state has one vote, although its delegation can consist of a maximum of five representatives.

• The work of the General Assembly is divided into six main Committees, plus a General Committee, which is composed of a President and seven Vice-Presidents.

• The President is elected for each session by all members.

• The “big five” are included among the Vice Presidents.

• Each member is represented in one of the six committees of the General Assembly, which are as follows:

1. The first committee deals with political, security and armament matters and the most important one;

2. The second committee deals with economic and financial matters;

3. The third with social, humanitarian and cultural matters;

4. The fourth with trusteeship matters;

5. The fifth with administrative and budgetary matters;

6. The six with legal matters;

III. Security Council of the United Nations is an executive body of the organization consisting of two kinds of members:

• permanent

• non-permanent

• The non-permanent members are elected for period of two years.

• They are elected primarily on the basis of the geopolitical distribution of seats by the General Assembly, which is also expected to give due consideration to their contribution to the maintenance of peace and security while selecting them.

• A retiring member is not eligible for immediate re-election.

• It selects its own President for period of one month.

IV. Unlike the other UN bodies like General Assembly and the Security Council, which function only when their meeting are convened, the Secretariat functions permanently.

• The Secretariat consist of the Secretary General (who is elected by the General Assembly for 5 years on the recommendations of the Security Council) and his supporting staff of around 4000 persons working in New York and Geneva.

• The Secretary General is assisted by five Deputy Secretary Generals who function under him. The work of the Secretariat is organized into five different departments, headed by a Deputy Secretary General. These departments are:

1. Political and Security Affairs;

2. Economic and Social Affairs;

3. Trusteeship and Information from non-self- governing territories;

4. Public information;

5. Conference Services.

V. The Charter initially provided the Economic and Social Council with 18 members elected by the General Assembly. This member has now been raised to 27. The members are elected for period of three years, one-third of them retiring every year. A retiring member is eligible for immediate re-election. Each member has one representative and possesses one vote. All decisions are taken by a simple majority.

Economic and Social Council is conceived to perform the tasks relating to weaker sections of the international community. It is not meant to be political body and does not perform any function for maintenance of international peace and security.

VI. Like the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council is also a non-political organ meant to perform certain humanitarian tasks. It was created to administer the former colonies of the defeated powers in the Second World War and consist of the members administering the trust territories, the permanent members of the Security Council and some other members elected by General Assembly. The number of members to be elected by the General Assembly is kept unspecified but Article 86 states that a principle of parity is to be maintained between those members who administer the trust territories and those who do not.

The functions of the Trusteeship Council are to supervise the work of the administering authorities. The Council considers the reports submitted by them and provides for “periodic visits” to the trust territories.

Article 88 suggests the purpose for which the territories are to be administered, for the “political, economic, social and educational advancement of the inhabitants”. The UN has formulated a trusteeship system under which these territories are administered by some states on its behalf, the supervision of which is function of the Trusteeship Council.

VII. The International Court of Justice “ the principal judicial organ of the United Nations”. All members of UN are ipso facto members of the International Court of Justice. The States which are not members of the UN can also become members of the court “on conditions to be determined by the General Assembly upon the recommendations of the Security Council”.

The Court consist of 15 Judges elected by the General Assembly and Security Council for a nine-year term/ These Judges are selected on the basis of “high moral character, who possess the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices”. No two Judges should be citizens of the same country, thus, the principle of “judicial impartiality and national prestige is followed in the appointment of Judges to the Court. The Court entertains disputes between the states only and those between the individual citizens.

The UNO founded on October 24, 1945. The UNO aims to save the world from recurring wars on the basis of “collective security”. To affirm its faith “in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of human persons, in the equal rights of men and women and the nations, however large and small.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report: “Post-war Security Arrangements, Concerts and Collective Security”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Show the main functions of the General Assembly and Security Council.

Home tasks: Prepare information about Court of Justice.

List of the reference on the theme:

6. История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.259-267

2. Дипломатический словарь. В 3-х томах. Т.1, с.170-171, т.2, с.311-312

Lecture 27

Theme of the lecture: Disarmament. Atomic problem.

Outline of the lecture

1. The problems of disarmament in 40-s.

2. The problems of disarmament in 50-s.

The brief content of the lecture

1. Disarmament was one of the main problems of the postwar international relations. Invention of atomic weapon was one of the reasons of confrontation. Appearance of such weapon put before mankind a great task: prohibition, ceasation of the tests and full destruction.

Negotiations of disarmament divided next periods:

1. 1945-1949 – from end of II World War and appearance of nuclear weapon till ending of the monopoly on this weapon.

2. 1949-1955 – from appearance of nuclear weapon in the USSR till Soviet initiatives, which were declared on May 10, 1955.

3. 1955 – beginning 60-s – the first real steps in disarmament.

In December 1945 the USSR, USA, Great Britain established Commission of the UNO for control at atomic energy, in which entered 5 permanent states and Canada (state, which participated in splitting of uranium atoms).

Commission should been make up and represent to the Security Council offers on control of atomic energy and using only for peaceful aims, and exchange by scientific informations.

• On June 19, 1946 the USSR brought to the commission of the UNO project of international convention about ban of production and using of weapon of mass destruction, which based on atomic energy.

• In February 1947 the Security Council adopted proposal about foundation commission for reduction ordinary weapons.

But all this projects didn’t realize. In September 1949, the USSR exploded an atomic device and American monopoly on Atomic weapon ended.

2. In 50-s the negotiations on disarmament continued.

• In 1952-1953 some proposals were represented by the USSR and the West.

• In 1952 the USSR brought project about regulation, limitation and reduction all military forces and all weapons at Seventh General Assembly Session.

• On May 28, 1952 the USA, Japan and France proposed limitation of military forces:

  1. For the USSR, USA and China – 1-1,5 mln men.

  2. For England and France – 700-800 th. Men.

  3. For other states less 1% of the number of population.

• On June 2, 1954 England and France brought to Sub-committee of the Commission of the UNO another project about disarmament in three stages.

• IX Session of the General Assembly, which was held in 1954 adopted two resolutions:

  1. “Regulation, limitation and reduction of military forces and all weapons”.

  2. Conclusion of international convention about ban of atomic, hydrogenous and other types of the weapons of mass destruction.”

Adoption of this Resolutions was the next step, after 1946, on disarmament.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report: “Reforms in the Eastern Europe and the USSR’s influence”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Prepare report: “Strategically interests of the USSR and USA in the 40-50-s”.

Home tasks: Write essay: “International Relations in the framework of the Eastern Europe”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.2267-273

2.Литвинов Б.В. Ядерный потенциал России: роль и значение для истории XX в. – Екатеринбург, Академкнига, 2000, с.54-55

3. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.188-203

Lecture 28

Theme of the lecture: International relations and foreign policy of the USSR in the second half of the 40-s and first half of the 50-s.

Outline of the lecture

1. Truman Doctrine. Marshall plan.

2. Foundation of the NATO and other military blocks.

3. Wars for independence in the South-East Asia.

The brief content of the lecture

1. After defeat of Germany and Japan and weakening of England and France, the USA decided to use the military and economy potential for establishment of world domination:

1. In February 1947, Great Britain notified the United States that it could no longer aid the Greek Government in its war against Communist insurgents. The next month President Harry S.Truman asked Congress for $400 million in military and economic aid for Greece and Turkey. In what became known as the “Truman Doctrine”, he argued that the United States must support free people who were resisting Communist domination.

2. Secretary of State George C.Marshall (1880-1959) proposed in June 1947 that the United States provide economic aid to help rebuild Europe. Meeting in July, representatives of the European nations agreed on a recovery program jointly financed by United States and the European Recovery Program, popularly known as the Marshall Plan, which provided more than $12 billion in aid.

2. In the same time the USA founded political blocks in the Western Europe:

• in 1948 the first military-political block of Western European states was formed.

• On March 17,1948 Northern Atlantic Pact on term 50 years was signed in Brussels.

• On April 4, 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was signed by the USA, Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Iceland and Canada. Greece and Turkey joined the alliance in 1952, and Western Germany in 1954.

• In September 1951, military-political Union ANZUS was formed.

• On May26, 1952 European Defense Union was founded.

• The USA, England, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines and Thailand signed Treaty about collective Defense of South-Eastern Asia in Namibia in 1954 (SEATO).

• In February 1955 Turkish-Iranian military Union was formed (Baghdad Pact).

On May 1955 Warsaw Treaty was concluded by Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, GDR, Poland, Rumania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia in opposite of the foundation of the NATO and including in it of the FRG.

8. Between 1945 and 1948, the USA gave more than $2 billion in aid to Nationalist Chinese under Chiang Kai Shek, and sent George C.Marshall to settle the conflict between Chiang’s Nationalists and Mao Tse-tung’s Communists. In 1949, however, Mao defeated Chiang and forced the Nationalists to flee to Formosa (Taiwan). Mao established the People’s Republic of China on the mainland, on October1,1949.

After the Second World War Korea was divided into North and South Korea along the 38 th parallel line. In the South American troops located, in the North – Soviet. Along the line some conflicts took place and thus the Korean question was created.

Glossary

Insurgents	восставшие	Көтеріліс шығару
Recovery	восстановление	Бұрынғы қалпына келу

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report: “USSR and Asian states”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Essay: “Aims and structure of the NATO”.

Home tasks: Prepare annotation on the book: Литвинов Б.В. «Ядерный потенциал России: роль и значение для истории XX века».

List of the reference on the theme:

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.274-280

2.Литвинов Б.В. Ядерный потенциал России: роль и значение для истории XX в. – Екатеринбург, Академкнига, 2000, с.54-55

3. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.188-203

Lecture 29

Theme of the lecture: “Cold War”.

Outline of the lecture

1. The Nature of Cold War and Definition.

2. The History of Cold War.

3. The Decline of Cold War.

The brief content of the lecture.

1. Cold War, unlike proper war, was a verbal warfare between two rival power blocs during the post-Second World War period and continued till the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990. With the end of the Second World War the United States of America and the Soviet Union had emerged as the most powerful nations with their own distinct ideologies, and economic and political strengths.

2. The history of the Cold War could be broadly divided into three phases:

• During the first phase (1943-1953) the Cold War policies were formulated and advocated zealously by the leaders of both camps. Sir Winston Churchill’s Fulton Mo speech of March 1946,when he spoke of the “iron curtain” of Soviet Russia, is generally considered to have inaugurated the Cold War period. This period divided into two stages:

  1. formative (1943-1948).

  2. Peak (1948-1953).

• During the second phase (1953-1957), the Cold War was consolidated and both the power blocs recognized the emergence and utility of the non-aligned group in international affairs. During this period, the tension between two camps reduced.

• During the third period the international scene had ceased to be bipolar and it became multipolar. Along this multipolarity, the United States and the Soviet Union began to develop détente from the time Khrushchev met Eisenhower at Camp David in 1961.

3. Cold War politics has been on decline from the late fifties:

• One contributing reason was the big powers détente.

• The second was the emergence of Gorbachev’s perestroika.

In the circumstances following the Second World War, the United States and the Soviet Union followed conflicting courses in all spheres of activities. There was competition among them for carving out their own spheres of influence. Their interests clashed on the question of western and eastern Europe. They were suspicious and afraid of each other and built up military alliances of their own. When this hot phase of the Cold War was over, both the superpowers realized that it would be mutual advantage to negotiate with each other to resolve their problems.

Perestroika in the USSR means reconstruction, which the Soviets had persuade as the principle of freedom. This had a dramatic effect on the ruling system of dictatorship and ultimately led to the collapse of communism and the Soviet state.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report: “American conception of policy of the USSR containment”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Explain term “Cold War” with what events was connected this term.

Home tasks: Write a short essay: “Military forces as a factor of the international relations “East-West”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.281-285

2.Плешаков К.В. Истоки «холодной войны» - США. Экономика, политика, идеология. 1991, №4, с.37-38

3.Дипломатический словарь. В 3-х томах. Т.2, с.304-305

4. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.204-219

Lecture 30-31

Theme of the lecture: Collapse of colonial system.

Outline of the lecture

1. Liberation movement in the South-Eastern Asia

2. Liberation movement in India.

3. Liberation movement in the Middle East.

4. Liberation movement in Africa.

5. Non-alignment movement.

The brief content of the lecture

1. After the WWII colonial system collapsed. The movement for liberation began in the South-Easter Asia. During the WWII the Japanese conquered the Dutch East Indies. At the end of the war, they recognized the independence of the area as Indonesia. When the Dutch attempted to return, four years of bloody fighting ensued against the national forces of Achmed Sukarno (1901-1970). In 1949, the Dutch recognized Indonesian independence. In 1954 the Indonesians dissolved all ties with the Netherlands. Sukarno’s regime became one of increasing dictatorship. In 1966, Sukarno was withdrawn and replaced by a more stable administration under general Suharto.

The interests of England and Japan clashed in Burma. Under the press of National-liberation forces England gave status of dominion to Burma. In September 1947 Constituent Assembly proclaimed about foundation of new republic – Burman Union and adopted Constitution.

Vietnam. Following WWII the French returned to Indochina attempted to restore their rule there. The opposition nationalist movement was led by the veteran Communist Ho Chi Ming. In 1954 French army was surrounded at Dienbienphu and forced to surrender. The military disaster prompted a change of government in France. This new government under Premier Pierre Mendes-France (1907-1982) negotiated French withdrawal at conference held at Geneva, Switzerland in 1954. Cambodia and Laos became independent and Vietnam was partitioned at the 17 th parallel. The North, with its capital at Hanoi, became a Communist state under Ho Chi Ming. The South remained non-communist.

However, the US chose to intervene and support the regime of Ngo Dinh Dien (1901-1963). In 1970 Nixon ordered the bombing of Cambodia, and in 1971 – Laos. In 1972 negotiations between the USA and North Vietnam began in Paris about a cease-fire, return of American prisoners of war and withdrawal of the US forces from Vietnam. Nearly 60000 Americans had been killed and 300000 more wounded and war had cost Americans $109 billion. Thus, after 30-years war Vietnam became free and independence democratic republic.

2. British rule in India came to an end in 1947. On August 15, 1947 India proclaimed independence. Complications ensued when Moslem leaders didn’t want to live in a state dominated by Hindus. The British decided to partition the subcontinent into two separate states: India with Hindu population of 350 mln and Pakistan with Moslem population of 75 mln.

Malaya, Burma and Ceylon were other British colonies that gained independence. All three became members of the British Commonwealth. In February 1948 Ceylon received a right of dominion. On July 4, 1946 Philippine Republic gained sovereignty. In 1951 Nepal became a sovereignty state with Constitutional Monarchy. Malaya suffered nine years of internal strife, which delayed independence until 1957, when the Federation of Malaya was created.

3. Palestine. The state of Palestine had existed in the place of the present Israel. It was decided by allied forced of the Second World War to create a state for the Jews of the world in their historic homeland in Palestine. Palestine was under the control of Great Britain, which had retained it as a mandatory territory. Thousands of Jews from eastern and western Europe and the United States went to Palestine to create a homeland for themselves.

The UNO took up the Palestinian issue and through its General Assembly passed a resolution to partition Palestine and create three states:

1. one for the Jews;

2. one for the Arab refuges coming from the Jewish areas;

3. one for the administrative unit for the city of Jerusalem;

Upon the partition of Palestine, Britain withdrew from mandatory territory of Palestine and the state of Israel came into existence in May 1948. This was immediately recognized by the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, France, etc.

4. Africa. National-liberation movement spread all over Africa. In March 1957 England colony Golden Coast became the first independent state of Tropic Africa. In February, the people Party under the leading of Kvame Nkruma won election. Kvama Nkruma became the first Premier-minister. On March 6, 1957 England gave up status of dominion to Golden Coast, which became a state Ghana.

Struggle for independence led states, which entered to French Western Africa and French equatorial Africa. On October 2, 1958 Guinea became a sovereignty Republic. Next were Togo and Cameroon.

In February 1959, extraordinary Session of General Assembly the UNO voted for given independence to Togo. On April 27, 1960 Independence was declared. On December 25, 1959 Cameroon became independent.

Senegal, Upper Valt, Dagomei and Sudan united into Federation Mali. After long negotiations in Paris in June 1960 agreement about given independence to Malgash Republic (Madagascar) and Federation Mali was signed.

In 1960 17 African states else became Independent: Tchad, Central-African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Dagomei Republic, Nigeria and others. This year was called in the world history as a year of Africa.

In 60-s states of Eastern and Central Africa, which belonged to Britain became free: Kenya, Uganda, Zanzibar, Rhodesia and others.

But states of Southern Africa received Independence later, because South was the most rich region of Africa. For example, Angola gained Independence in 1975.

The unification of forces was the main aim for African states. In 1963 Organization of African Unity, which united 50 states was founded.

5. Non-aligned movement (NAM). Non-aligned movement has its origin in the Afro-Asian solidarity movement. The origin of this movement can be traced to the First Asian Relations Conference held in Delhi in 1947. The Bandung Conference of 1955 was convened at the initiative of India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Pakistan and it proved, in sense, a starting point of the non-aligned movement. Anticolonialism is an essential ingredient of non-alignment. NAM doesn’t have any Secretariat or offices like Secretary General of the UNO. Cohesion among members and continuity of its work is maintained through occasional meetings of the foreign ministers of its member-nations and through Summit meeting, which are normally held once in three years.

The criterion of non-alignment, as formulated by the preparatory meeting of the Conference of Uncommitted Countries held in Cairo from 5 to 12 June 1961.

1. The first Summit Meeting of the non-aligned countries was held at Belgrade in 1961. The first Summit was attended by 25 non-aligned countries. The agenda of the first Summit had included:

• International situation;

• Establishment and strengthening of international peace and security;

• Problems of unequal economic development and promotion of international economic and technological cooperation;

2. Second Summit met at Cairo in October 1964. Its strength grew from 25 to 47. The African countries had increased their number by seventeen and the Arabs by four. Among the observers were Latin American countries. Discussed next problems:

• National liberation struggles;

• Nuclear disarmament;

• Economic cooperation;

3. The Third Summit Conference of the NAM countries was held at Lusaka in Africa in September 1970. It was attended by 53 members. In additional to Finland, Austria had attended as an observer. The agenda;

• discussed the current international situation;

• supported national liberation movements;

• expressed concern for deteriorating international situation;

• need for increasing economic cooperation among the developed and developing countries.

4. The Forth Summit was held at Algiers in September 1973. It was attended by 75 members and eight observers. The conference was more vocal on neo-colonialism and had set the time for a new international economic order. As the crisis situation had lessened, economic issues came to the forefront.

5. The Fifth Summit was held at Colombo in Sri Lanka in August 1976. Membership had increased to eighty-six. Five new African countries had joined the NAM. The agenda:

• The problems of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia and Palestine had dominated the Colombo meet.

• Summit had also expressed its concern about the détente between the two superpowers.

6. The Sixth Summit Conference was held at Havana in Cuba, in September 1979:

• Dominated Kampuchean question;

• Cuba’s antagonism towards the United States.

7. The Seventh Summit was held in New Delhi in 1983 under Mrs. Indira Gandhi’s leadership:

• It had issued an appeal to Iran and Iraq to stop fighting:

• Sent a massage to Great Powers to take steps for prevention of nuclear holocaust;

• Had issued an action program for greater economic cooperation among members states.

8. The Eighth Summit was held at Harare in Zimbabwe in September 1986. It was now hundred and one members, ten observers and eleven guests. Among the important documents adopted by the Summit were:

• A declaration for abolition of apartheid in South Africa;

• A declaration for the Independence of Namibia;

• An economic declaration;

• An action program.

9. The Ninth Summit was held at Belgrade in September 1989:

• Palestine liberation movement:

• New economic order.

j) The Tenth Summit of the NAM countries was held at Jakarta in Indonesia in September 1992. It was the first Summit held after the collapse of the USSR and its socialist system in Eastern Europe. The bipolar world order had been replaced by a new unipolar world order. This summit was dominated by the United States of America.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report: ”Non-aligned policy formation”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: prepare report: “Non-aligned movement as an institute of international relations”.

Home tasks: Write essay “Sphere of the cooperation of Non-aligned states”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.286-293

2.Дипломатический словарь. В 3-х томах. Т.1, с.170-171, т.2, с.277-279

3. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.220-232

Lecture 32

Theme of the lecture: International relations in 60-s. Problems of disarmament and prohibition of atomic weapons.

Outline of the lecture

1. Geneva and Moscow Congresses.

2. Caribbean crises.

3. The Czechoslovakian question.

The brief content of the lecture

1. In the beginning of 60-s negotiations began between the USSR, USA and Great Britain about cease tests of nuclear weapons in Geneva. Nuclear weapons were a growing concern in the US, the Soviet Union and countries – especially those of Western Europe. The war in Korea and rearmament of West Germany within NATO prevented any serious disarmament negotiations.

• Europe was divided into separate armed camps: NATO and the Warsaw Pact led by the Soviet Union.

• In the next several years, the world moved into the age of rocketry, nuclear-powered submarines, and other military products of socalled “high technology”.

• Russia tested its first bomb in 1949.

• By 1952 the British had tested an atomic bomb.

• The USA successfully developed and tested a thermonuclear weapon (H-bomb) in 1952.

• In 1953 the Russians exploded a similar weapon.

• In1961 the Soviet Union exploded a 60-megaton H-bomb.

• The French joined the nuclear power in 1960. They tested an H-bomb in August 1968.

• China also became a nuclear power, exploding its first nuclear device in 1964. It fired its first rocket with a nuclear warhead in October 1966 and tested H-bomb in June 1967.

• Even Israel and India built reactors with the potential for producing weapons.

Negotiations, which continued several years, were hindered by France and China. In November 1962, XVII session of General Assembly the UNO adopted resolution ceasation of nuclear weapon no later January 1,1968.

• On July 2, 1963 the USSR suggested to conclude treaty about banning test in three spheres: in atmosphere, in cosmos, and under the water.

• The Soviet delegation proposed the appointment of a new disarmament committee with the inclusion of some neutrals. Subsequently, the 18 Nation Disarmament Committee was formed with the inclusion of five members each the USA and Western side and eight neutrals. This Committee is still is the adoption of the Test Ban Treaty of August 1963 which bans open-air and underwater nuclear tests. Practically all members of the United Nations, except France, China and a few others, have signed this treaty. This Committee has also drafted a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Moscow treaty was ratified on October 10, 1963 and was opened for signing by all states.

• In the middle of 60-s nuclear reactors functioned in 38 states. Besides, in 1968, 13 states had reactors, which produced Plutonium, except nuclear states.

• Some regions were declared non-nuclear zones. Thus, in summer 1964, conference in Cairo adopted declaration, where Africa was proclaimed a non-nuclear zone.

• On June 12, 1968, XXII Session of General Assembly confirmed Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. On July 1, 1968 Treaty for signing was opened in Moscow, Washington and London. In the same day minister of foreign affairs of the USSR A.A.Gromyko and representatives of 36 states signed this treaty in Moscow.

• The USSR, USA and England brought suggestion about security guarantees of non-nuclear states. On June 1968 the Security Council adopted resolution about security guarantees of non-nuclear states.

• In the end of 60-s the discussion of the problem about demilitarization of sea bottom began and project of treaty about banning and location of the weapon of mass destruction on the bottom of seas and oceans was brought to XXIV session of the General Assembly in October 1969.

2. On October 22, 1962, Kennedy announced a blockade of Cuba and called on Khrushchev to dismantle missile bases and remove all weapons capable of attacking the United from Cuba. Six days later, Khrushchev withdrew the missiles, and Kennedy abolished the blockade. The United States promised not to invade Cuba and remove missiles from bases in Turkey.

3. Early in 1968, Alexander Dubcek became leader of the Czechoslovakian Communist Party and began a process of liberalization. On August 23, Soviet troops (together with East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria) established a military occupation. In April 1969, Dubcek was forced out of power and new regime established under Gustav Husak. Nevertheless, a few changes remained, such as federalization of the country to give equality to the Slovaks.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about Caribbean crisis.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Write a short essay: “USSR and USA in the 60-s”.

Home tasks: Prepare report: ”Problems of the disarmament and prohibition of the nuclear weapons”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.294-297

2.Латыш В.М. «Пражская весна» 1968 г. И реакция Крумля.- М., 1998, с.220-223

3. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.268-283

Lecture 33

Theme of the lecture: International relations in 70-s.

Outline of the lecture.

1. Soviet-American relationships in 70-s.

2. CSCE (Congress of Security and Collaboration in Europe).

3. Vietnam problem.

The brief content of the lecture .

1. – On December 7, 1970, XXV session of General Assembly adopted resolution about approval Treaty of banning location of nuclear weapon and other weapon of mass destruction on the bottom of seas and oceans. In the end of 1971, 90 states signed this treaty. On May 18, 1972 the Treaty was ratified.

   • The USA used poisoned weapon against Vietnam. Before, in 1966 on the XXI session of General Assembly UNO, Hungary suggested followed to Geneva Protocol of 1925, which banned using gases and bacteriological weapons. On XXIV session the USSR, BSSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Ukraine SSR and Czechoslovakia brought project of Convention about stopping production of chemical and bacteriological weapons.

   • Soviet-American negotiations lasted from 1969 till 1972 in Vienna and Helsinki. In May 1972 Nixon visited Moscow and on May 26, 1972 a Strategic Arm Limitation Treaty (SALT-I) was signed. The signatories agreed to stop making nuclear ballistic missiles and to reduce the number of antiballistic missiles to 200 for each power.

   • On May 29, 1972 the USSR and the USA adopted another important document: “basis of relationships between the USSR and the USA”, where both sides recognized peaceful coexistence, and obliged to limit strategic weapons.

2. Preparation to the Congress of Security and Collaboration in Europe continued. The Warsaw Treaty was initiator of this Congress. On July 5, 1966 the Political consulting Committee adopted Declaration about consolidating of peace and security in Europe.

   • On March 18, 1969 members of Warsaw Treaty applied to European states to begin dialog between socialist and capitalist states about formation of the system of collective security.

   • On May 31, 1972 NATO agreed to take part in preliminary consultations for preparation of European Congress Consultations began on November 22, 1972 in Helsinki and lasted till June 8, 1973. 32 European states, the USA and Canada took part in it. They adopted recommendations about:

     1. Organization of Congress;

     2. Agenda;

     3. Body of participants;

     4. Date and place of Congress;

   • Agenda consist of:

1. About security in Europe;

2. About collaboration in economics, science, techniques and protector of environment;

3. About collaboration in humanitarian and other spheres;

4. About other steps after Congress;

• On July 3, 1973 the first stage of Congress was held in Helsinki and lasted 5 days. Ministers of foreign affairs of 35 states took part in Congress. Soviet government brought project of General Declaration about basis of European security and principals of relationships between states in Europe.

• On September 18, 1973 the second stage worked in Geneva and lasted till July 21, 1975.

• The last stage of the Congress was held on July 30, 1975 in Helsinki. Presidents and heads of 33 European states and the USA and Canada took part in it. On August 1, the Conclusion Act of Congress was signed. Next meetings were in Belgrade (4.10.1977 – 9.03.1978), in Madrid (2.11.1980 – 9.09.1983), in Stockholm (17.01.1984).

• In 70-s new types of the weapons of mass destruction as a neutron bomb was prepared for producing.

• On Special Session of General Assembly of the UNO, which held from May 30 till June 30, 1978 the USSR offered practical steps to ceasation of arm racing:

  1. ceasation of qualitative and quantitative growth of weapons;

  2. to refuse from production of nuclear weapon;

  3. don’t create new kinds of ordinary weapons;

In June 1979 a head of the Soviet government L.I.Brezhnev and president of the USA J.Carter

Met in Vienna, where they signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT II). The Treaty set a ceiling of 2,250 bombers and missiles for each side, and established limits on warheads and new weapons systems.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about foreign doctrine of R.Reigan.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Write a short essay: “Main problems of the international relations in 70-s: SALT-1, SALT-2, congress in Helsinki”.

Home tasks: Prepare report: ”Problems of the disarmament and prohibition of the nuclear weapons”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.298-303

2.Коргун В.Г. Афганистан: политика и политики. - М.,РАН, 1999, с.70-72

3. Советско-американские отношения на новом этапе.- МЭИМЛ.1988, №9, с.28.

4.Воронцов Г.А. От Хельсинки к «общеевропейскому дому». – МЭИМО, 1988, №9, с.35-36.

5. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.283-300

Lecture 34-35

Theme of the lecture: International relations in 80-90-s.

Outline of the lecture

1. International relations in the first half of 90-s.

2. Partnership for peace.

3. International relations in the second half of 90-s.

4. Expansion of the NATO to the East.

The brief content of the lecture.

1. In the last 10 years great global changes took place in the world:

• Military political resistance between two systems ended, the USA and the USSR, West and East;

• The USSR collapsed;

• Socialist system collapsed;

• “Perestroika” in the USSR;

• Liquidation of missiles in Europe during three years;

• Refuse support of regional conflicts in the world and withdrew of the Soviet troops from Afghanistan;

• Cessation control over the Eastern Europe allies, which led to the fall of communist regimes in the Eastern and South-Eastern Europe states;

• Unification of Germany;

• Conclusion of the Soviet-American Treaty about limitation strategic offensive Arms;

• Dissolution of the Warsaw Treaty and Council of economic mutual aid;

• Refusal from military presence in Europe and withdrawal of the Soviet troops from Europe;

• With the collapse of the SU and it’s empire in the Eastern Europe, bipolarity in the world affairs had vanished. The world had now become unipolar;

In compare with the USSR the territory of Russia reduced in ¼, population in half. Relationships with “far abroad” developed in two directions:

1. military-political;

2. economic;

• Russia was given the place of the USSR in the Security Council in the UNO and other international organizations;

• Russia declared about it’s intention to be sole nuclear state on the postsoviet area. Soviet nuclear weapon located on the territory of Ukraine, Beylorussia and Kazakhstan after collapse of the USSR.

According agreement in Belovezhskaya Pushcha and in Almaty meeting in December, 1991 was declared, that nuclear forces non-divided and will be under the control and protection of Headquarter of joining military forces of the CIS. Management by nuclear weapon was given to the President of Russia and Commander-in-Chief of joining military forces of the CIS. The right to adopt decisions about using of nuclear weapons was given to the President of Russia, who coordinate with heads of states, where its weapons were located.

Supposed, that nuclear weapon should been replaced from late Soviet republics to Russia and dissembled. Byelorussia and Kazakhstan declared about their status of non-nuclear states, but Ukraine didn’t hurry to give own nuclear warheads to Russia, and in June 1993 declared 2000 warheads, which located in Ukraine as own property (about 20% strategic arsenal of the late the USSR).

In the beginning 1992 President B.Eltsin declared, that nuclear weapons of Russia shouldn’t been aimed to the USA. In January 1993 Presidents of Russia and the USA signed new treaty in Moscow about limitation strategic offensive Arms (SOALT-II).

At that time Russian diplomacy followed to the interests of the USA:

• Russia supported military-inspection control of Iraq military objects and international economic sanctions against Iraq, which were introduced after suppression of Iraq aggression in Kuwait in 1991.

• Russia joined to international economic sanction against Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), which was introduced because of support by Yugoslavs Bosnians, Serbs in international conflict in Bosnia.

The relations with FRG was friendly. In October 1990 Germany was reunified. Soviet troops withdrew from Germany. FRG invested of their social arrangement in new place.

The relations with Japan complicated. In 1991 during the visit of Gorbachev in Japan, Soviet delegation recognized existence of territorial problem about four Southern-Curile islands. But assumption about giving islands to Japan led negative reaction in Russia and President of Russia confirmed indivisibility of Russian borders, that’s why relations between Russia and Japan were hindered.

Concessions of Russian diplomacy in the first half of 90-s was explained by necessity for Russia to declare:

1. about itself as a democratic state;

2. hopes on economic aid from the West. But only International Monetary Fund included Russia in its structure. Russia received humanitarian aid by food, medicaments etc., but multibillion financial aid weren’t given.

2. Block NATO suggested to late socialist states and the states of late Soviet Union, including Russia, to adopt joint program “Partnership for peace”, which have been established forms of military collaboration. It was temporary compromise between Russia and the USA, which delayed including of the late states of Warsaw treaty and Baltic republics and some states of the late the USSR to the NATO.

In June 1994, Russia joined to the NATO Program “Partnership for peace” and gained rights:

• to send representatives to the headquarter of NATO in Brussels;

• Russian and Ukraine battalions were formed, which took part in the division of hostile sides in Bosnia;

• Joint staff and military trainings;

• In September 1997 military trainings were held in Turkmenia, where took part military divisions of the NATO, middle Asian states, Russia, Georgia, Lithuania and others;

• For the NATO the program “Partnership for peace” played role of protection from Islam fundamentalism from the South;

• Russia joined to this program, because feared to be political isolation.

3. Real changes in foreign policy of Russia began after appoint of Y.Primakov as a minister of foreign affairs:

• Yet in February Russia refused from sanctions against Bosnian Serbs;

• In October Council of Security of the UNO abolished economic sanctions against Yugoslavia, which acted from 1992;

• In January 1997 Minister of Foreign Affairs was a mediator between a President of Serbia and opposition;

• In September 1996 Russia condemned the American bombing of military objects on the territory of Iraq;

• From 1997 Russia attempted to return positions in Middle East, settlement. In February 1997 on the meeting between Y.Primakov and leader of Palestine Jas.Arafat, Arabs were promised, not only political, but economic aid;

• From 1995 Russia restored losing positions on the market of weapons. Russia weapons were bought by India, Arabian states, China, even Southern Korea(which imported American weapons;

• In April 1996 leaders of “Seven” (the USA, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Canada, France, Japan) and Russia met in Moscow and agreed about ceasation of nuclear tests and non-expansion of nuclear states;

• On September 25, 1996 Treaty about prohibition in all spheres (to that moment only underground tests were permitted, but China tested in atmosphere) was signed in New York, all states joined to this treaty, except India.

4. Expansion of the NATO to the East became the main foreign problem of Russia. About reception of new members of the NATO – former socialist states of the Eastern and Central Europe discussed in 1995. Russia suggested the expansion of the Congress for security and collaboration in Europe and providing of military security and political stability on the continent. CSCE, firstly was gathered in 1975 in Helsinki for military détente between socialist East and capitalist West.

In 1996 President of the USA B.Clinton declared in Detroit, that will been double process:

1. The NATO should been expanded to the East;

2. Peaceful relations with democratic Russia should been developed. He confirmed, that with the ending of the “Cold War” character of the NATO changed and it didn’t threat to Russia;

• Russia considered, that expansion of the USA to the East violated balance power, stability in Europe, and national interests of Russia and seriously to influence on the character of relationships of the Russia with Western states;

• In July 1997 on the session of the NATO decision about adoption of Poland, Hungary and Czech was adopted in Madrid. For rearmament and improving of military infrastructure this states should been received 10-15 billion dollars. Except of geopolitical minuses in economic for Russia, it means loses of European market of armament.

On March 20-21, 1997 the meeting of the President of Russia B.Eltsin and President of the USA B.Clinton was held in Helsinki:

• The main problem – expansion of the NATO to the East didn’t solve. B.Clinton confirmed, that expansion of the NATO to the East will be act, and he didn’t promise, that late states of the USSR don’t include to the NATO;

• President of the USA promised, that meeting of the leaders will be held with the participation of Russia in Denvir, and “Seven” will be “Eight”.

• But the B.Eltsin told, if the NATO will expanse to the East, Russia will activate relations with Eastern states: Iran, India, China:

  1. On March 27, President of Russia met with Prime-Minister of India, and agreement about construction of two atomic electric power stations was signed;

  2. Documents about financial, customs and military-technical collaborations were signed;

  3. Leaders of Russia and China met in April, 1997. Military forces of Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgizia and Tajikistan were reduced on 100 km zone from borders. China became a strategic partner of Russia;

  4. Russia delivered nuclear reactors to Iraq;

  5. Russia builds electric power station in Iran;

In spite on aspiration of the USA on the world domination, but the influence of the USA weakened:

1. Collapse of the USSR weakened necessity to unite around the USA;

2. Europe strengthened economic. Share of the USA in the world production, trade and scientific activity reduced. Economic and scientific-technical potential of Europe, Japan and Eastern Asia led to the competition with the USA;

3. Anti-American moods increased not only in Asia and Africa, but other regions of the world.

So, bipolarity in the world affairs had vanished. The world now become unipolar.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about changing of international relations after collapse of the USSR .

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Write a short essay: “International relations in 2001-2005”.

Home tasks: Prepare report: ”European Union and the USA”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.304-308.

2.Маранц П. От Ленина до Горбачева: изменения в советских подходах к отношениям Восток-Запад. – США. Экономика, политика, идеология. 1991, №2, с.82-83

3.Бжезинский З. Великая шахматная доска. Господство Америки и геостратегические императивы.- М., Международные отношения, 1998, с.108.

4. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.301-316

Lecture 36

Theme of the lecture: Latin America in 1945-2000.

Outline of the lecture

1. Latin America in 40-50-s.

2. Guatemala Revolution (1944-1954).

3. Cuba Revolution.

4. Latin America in 60-s.

5. Latin America in 70-s. Chilian Revolution (1970-1973).

6. Latin America in 80-90-s.

The brief content of the lecture

1.The II WW influenced on the development of economics of Latin America. Reduction of the import of goods from waging states led to the increasing of local industry. New enterprises were built in chemical, metallurgical and oil industries. In political life mass meetings, demonstrations, uprisings began:

• Overthrow of dictatorship regime in Salvador (1944);

• In Ecuador (in October 1944);

• In Guatemala (October 1944);

• In Argentina and Brazil in the result of mass demonstrations civil freedoms were restored.

In 40-50-s national-reformist parties were founded. Ideas of slogans of national-reformists attracted many supporters from businessmen, bourgeois, intelligentsia, peasants, workers.

J. Peron and Peronism in Argentina. In the result of military coup d’etate in 1943 J. Peron became a member of the government and in 1946-1955 a President of Argentina. His activity was directed on the development of national economy and social policy. He established diplomatic relations with the USSR.

“Khustisialism” is a justice was a base of his policy. Conception about unity of all stratums of Argentina nation. In 1947 Peronist party was organized. Landowners, bourgeois, workers, peasants, intelligence became members of this party. It was bourgeois-national stream on the principals of national-reformism and public Christianity. In 1947 Latin American states and the USA signed “Mutual aid Pact” in Rio-de-Janeiro. On the principles of this document “Organization of American states” was formed in 1948. It6 was the first military-political blocs of Western states after the II WW.

2. The political situation in Central America characterized by the establishment of military dictatorships in 30-s by force or by the help of American monopolies and diplomatic services of the USA. In the end of the II WW under the influence of antifascist coalition in Central America liberation movements began:

• In 1944 dictatorship of Ernendens Martins fall in Salvador;

• In the summer 1944 strikes and uprising began in

Guatemala, which forced dictator of Ch. Ubiko to pass power to military dictators. Provisional government was headed by Jose Arevalo, who was elected as a President in March 1945. Democratic freedoms were proclaimed. But the USA didn’t agree with this acts and from 1946-1950 30 attempts of the coup dátete were launched. In 1951 Arbens was elected a President of Guatemala (1951-1954). Construction of new enterprises, electro stations, roads, river and sea ports began. Payments and pensions increased. In 1952 Agrarian Law was adopted, according which 0.5 mln hectares of land were expropriated from landlords and “United Fruit Company” and distributed between peasants. The USA didn’t support the policy of Arbens and in June 1954 troops from Honduras and Nicaragua. Ch.Arbens was dismissed. Power was passed to military Dictator K.Castilio Armas. The dictatorship regime was established in Guatemala.

3. The revolution in Cuba began in 50-s. Young patriots under thr head of Fidel Castro Russ attacked military barracks Moncada in Santiago-de-Cuba on July 26, 1953. Attack was failed.

The political regime of R.F.Batista was established in 1952 after the coup d’átete. Government of Batista abolished the Constitution of 1940 and dissolused National Congress and concentrated the Legislative and Executive power.

The main aims of Castro policy were:

• Overthrow of dictatorship;

• Restoration of bourgeois-democratic freedoms;

• Liquidation of landowners and distribution of lands to peasants;

• Independent economic and political development of Cuba.

Court sentenced revolutionaries to 15 years of prison, but under the protest were released. They emigrated to Mexico and revolutionary-democratic organization “Movement of July 26”founded. On January 1, 1959 Cuban Revolution won and broke theory of “geopolitical determinism” about dependence of Latin America from the USA because of short distance from the USA.

• On February 16,1959 F.Castro was proclaimed as a Prime-Minister;

• On May,17, 1959 the I Agrarian reform was declared;

• Trade, economic and diplomatic relations were established with the USSR;

• In January 1961 the USA broke diplomatic relations with Cuba;

• Cuba was excluded from Organization of American States;

• The USA forced other Latin American states broke diplomatic relations with Cuba (only Mexico didn’t submit to this order);

• In 1963 the Second Agrarian reform began;

• In 1977 Cuba helped to Ethiopia;

• In 70-80-s Cubian troops fought in Angola;

• Cuba became a member of Non-Alignment Movement and one of the active participants of it.

4. After Cubian Revolution, ant colonial movement began in Latin America. Some colonies gained independence: Jamaica in 1962, Barbados and Guiana in 1966. In 60-s partisan movements began in Guatemala, Nicaragua, Ecuador, Columbia, Peru, but were suppressed by American troops.

Latin America needed in new Program for economic modernization. Such Program was represented by American President G.Kennedy: “Union for progress” and signed in August 1961 by 19 Latin American states in Punta-del-Este. The main aim of Program, which should been lasted 10 years consist of:

• Social-economic development of Latin America for reduction differences between Latin American and developed states;

• Changing of social structure of Latin American states, strengthening of the middle class and supporting of democracy, but no dictatorship regimes;

• In the second half of 60-s economic integration was the main direction of the “Union for Progress”. In 60-s Latin American Association of Free Trade was formed by Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Chile, Uruguay. Then Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Bolivia joined to them.

5. Republic Chile – one of developed states in Latin America. In 1969 “National Unity”, which consists of Socialist Party of Chile, Communist Party of Chile, Radical Party and others was formed. In the eve of Revolution 70% of population lived in the towns. 45% of the rural population were agrarian workers and employees. Middle class differed by the high political activities. They were united in federations of teachers, doctors, lawyers, engineers, students. In 50-60-s leftist parties formed the “Front of People Action”. Representatives of this Party formed idea about Revolution by peaceful methods. In 1964-1970 Christian-Democratic Party ruled in Chile. In 1969 “People Unity” was formed. The program of PU had next points:

• Nationalization of foreign monopolies;

• Provision of the economy growth;

• Provision of the stability of national currency;

• Provision of production of consumer goods;

• Increasing of export;

• Using of new seller’s markets.

In 1973 Parliament elections were held. 44% of population voted for PU. PU under the head of S.Aliende was overthrown by military dictators. President S.Aliende refused to abdicate from power and was killed. Military dictatorship under the leading of general Pinochet Augusto came to the power.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report about policy of cooperation in Latin America in 2001-2007.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Write a short essay: “USA and Latin America”.

Home tasks: Prepare report: ”Role of international organizations in economic and political development of the Latin America”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1.История международных отношений и внешней политики России (1648-2000). М., 2003, с.309-323

2.Бжезинский З. Великая шахматная доска. Господство Америки и геостратегические императивы.- М., Международные отношения, 1998, с.108.

3. Казанцев Ю.И. Международные отношения и внешняя политика России.- Новосибирск, Феникс, 2002, с.318-337

Lecture 37

Theme of the lecture: Foreign policy of RK.

Outline of the lecture

1. 10 years of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy: main achievements and new goals.

2. Cooperation Organization.

The brief content of the lecture.

1. The formation of conceptual basis and principles of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy was started shortly after Kazakhstan gained its independence on December 16^th 1991. The first President of the independent Kazakhstan N.Nazarbayev has clearly determined the main strategy of Kazakhstan’s diplomacy creating and maintaining favorable conditions for the steady development of the country on the basis of political and economic reforms.

The nature of these transformations inside the country determined the main priorities of the country’s foreign policy; its impartial character and its desire for full involvement in international and regional events. At that time the Government of the Republic had make key decisions in military, political and economic areas and also decisions on democratic reforms and on the establishment of a new state governing system. Analyses of the main achievements in the independent development of Kazakhstan during the last 12 years, has shown that one of the most important decisions made at that time was:

• to gain the status of a non nuclear country and pursue the policy of non-proliferation;

• Kazakhstan’s diplomacy was successful in developing good relations with Russia, China and other countries of Central Asia, the USA and many European and Asian countries;

• Friendly relations with our neighbors, there is a “security belt” around Kazakhstan’s border.

• Kazakhstan has established diplomatic relations with 120 countries and has become a member of 64 international political and economic organizations;

• Kazakhstan was accepted as a member of the UNO in March 1992. Since that time Kazakhstan has participated in many activities of the UNO;

• Over 1300 international and intergovernmental contracts and agreements have been signed by Kazakhstan.

2. Kazakhstan took practical measures on its cooperation within the CIS, the Eurasian Economic Association, the Central Asian Economic Association as well as within newly founded Shanghai Cooperation Organization.

At present there are numerous diplomatic and consular offices worldwide that are representing Kazakhstan abroad: 32 embassies, 3 permanent representations, 6 diplomatic missions, 3 General Consulates, more than 10 Consulates and 1 passport visa agency.

Kazakhstan diplomacy has achieved a lot during the last 12 years. The Law on Diplomatic service of the Republic of Kazakhstan was adopted and framework of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy and international cooperation was established.

Our country strives towards the development and strengthening of security and related organizations in Asia. The President N.Nazarbayev made proposal to call the Conference on Interaction and Confidence building measures in Asia (CICA). The first CICA summit took place in Almaty in June 2002 adopting an “Almaty Act” which outlines the principles of security and cooperation in Asia.

Kazakhstan is a large country located in Europe and Asia; its interests are multifaceted and there is no bias towards one continent or another. Its geographical location has helped define the priorities of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy and has influenced the many directions of its diplomatic activity.

But the key goals and principles of the foreign policy of Kazakhstan remain as follows:

• protection of national interests;

• providing the most favorable conditions for economic and political development of the country;

• development of strategic cooperation with leading countries and regions of the world;

• development of comprehensive cooperation with international organizations;

• contribution to the strengthening of democratic principles of the new world order;

• contribution to global and regional security and stability and struggle against new threats (terrorism, drug trafficking, organized crime etc.);

• active participation in the promotion of social, human development and democracy in the world;

• active participation in securing and sustainable development in the world.

Glossary

Tasks for IWS: Prepare report “Kazakhstan and International Community”.

Task for IWS under a teacher’s control: Write a short essay: “Problem of the expansion of NATO to the East and Kazakhstan”.

Home tasks: Prepare report: ”Priorities and main objectives of the Foreign policy of Kazakhstan”.

List of the reference on the theme:

1. Токаев К.К. Под стягом независимости.-Алматы., 2003, с.3-17