Borrowings after the Introduction of Christianity (597) that lie within the following semantic areas:

• religion (angel, hymn, idol, pope, psalm; from Greek through Latin – anthem, bishop, candle, apostle, etc.);

• learning (school, scholar, master, verse, accent, grammar, etc.);

• everyday life (plant, pine, radish, cap, sock, etc.).

Plus there appeared a lot of so-called translation loans – words that were translated part-for-part from Latin (e.g. Monday (“moon day”, from Latin Lunae dies), goldsmith (from Latin aurifex (auri = gold, fex = worker)), etc.).

All Latin borrowings in OE underwent assimilation, i.e.:

• changed their spelling according to the English rules;

• underwent some phonetic changes according to the English rules;

• were used in derivation and compounding;

• acquired grammatical categories of the English parts of speech.

Вопрос 20. Linguistic situation in the me period.

It hardly can be argued that the Norman Conquest was not only a great event in British political history but also the greatest single event in the history of the English language. Its earliest effect was a drastic change in the linguistic situation.

The Norman Conquerors of England had originally come from Scandinavia. About one hundred and fifty years before they seized the valley of the Scine and settled in what was known as Normandy. They were swiftly assimilated by the French and in the 11th century came to Britain as French speakers and bearers of French culture. They spoke the Northern dialect of French, which differed in some points from Central, Parisian French. Their tongue in Britain is often referred to as `Anglo-French' or `Anglo-Norman', but may just as well be called French, since we are less concerned here with the distinction of French dialects than with the continuous French influence upon English, both in the Norman period of history and a long while after the Anglo-Norman language had ceased to exist.

In the early 13th century, as a result of lengthy and inefficient wars with France King John Lackland lost the French provinces, including the dukedom of Normandy. Among other consequences the loss of the lands in France cut off the Normans in Britain from France, which speeded up the decline of the Anglo-French language.

The most immediate consequence of the Norman domination in Britain is to be seen in the wide use of the French language in many spheres of life. For almost three hundred years French was the official language of administration: it was the language of the king's court, the law courts, the church, the army and the castle. It was also everyday language of many nobles, of the higher clergy and of many townspeople in the South. The intellectual life, literature and education were in the hands of French-speaking people; French, alongside Latin, was the language of writing. Teaching was largely conducted in French and boys at school were taught to translate their Latin into French instead of English.

As A. Baugh states, England never stopped being an English-speaking country. The bulk of the population held fast to their own tongue: the lower classes in the towns, and especially in the country-side, those who lived in the Midlands and up north, continued to speak English and looked upon French as foreign and hostile. Since most of the people were illiterate, the English language was almost exclusively used for spoken communication.

At first the two languages existed side by side without mingling. Then, slowly and quickly, they began to permeate each other. The Norman barons and the French town-dwellers had to pick up English words to make themselves understood while the English began to use French words in current speech. A good knowledge of French would mark a person of higher standing giving him a certain social prestige probably many people become bilingual and had a fair command of both languages .

Undoubtedly, these peculiar linguistic conditions could not remain static. The struggle between French and English was bound to end in the complete victory of English, for English was the living language of the entire people, while French was restricted to certain social spheres and to writing. Yet the final victory was still a long way off. In the 13th century only a few steps were made in that direction. The earliest sign of the official recognition of English by the Norman hinges was the famous Proclamation issued by Henry III in 1258 to the councilors in Parliament. It was written in three languages: French, Latin and English.

The three hundred years of the domination of French affected English more than any other foreign influence before or after. The early French borrowings reflect accurately the spheres of Norman influence upon English life; later borrowings can be attributed to the continued cultural, economic and political contacts between the countries. The French influence added new features to the regional and social differentiation of the language. New words, coming from French, could not be adopted simultaneously by all the speakers of English; they were first used in some varieties of the language, namely in the regional dialects of Southern England and in the speech if the upper classes, but were unknown in the other varieties of the language.

№21. Anglo-Saxon Conquence

It was about the middle of the fifth century that these tribes first began to desert their continental homes, for new settlements in the British Isles. There was no concerted invasion of Britain under a single leader, as was the case in the invasions of Gaul and Italia. Even the traditional accounts, which speak of a single band under a single leader in each of the different sections, are undoubtedly erroneous. There were a series of conquests and settlements by many detached bands, differing greatly in size and strength, but none of them large. The English Kingdom was only to be developed by a gradual evolution. The many early kingdoms became consolidated into seven; the seven into three, and the three into one. The first great work of the English people was the creation of a united English nation.

The Jutes apparently led the way and settled in Kent, that part of all Britain most easily accessible to continental Europe. Their fabled leaders Hengist and Horsa, bore names which signify the stallion and the mare, and are symbolic of the sacred white horse worshiped by the race. The leading seats of Jutish power became developed at Rochester and Canterbury, and the final union of all the Jutish settlements created the kingdom of Kent. Here Jutish invasion ended. The Jutes played the first and least important part in the Teutonic conquests of Britain.

After the Jute came the Saxon, conquering and settling from Kent westward to Cornwall and Wales, and northward from the sea to the Watling Road. Of the seven kingdoms, Wessex, Essex, Sussex, and a part of Mercia, were Saxon. According to the chronicles the two great streams of Saxon occupations were the invasion of the South Saxons, under Aella in 477, and of the West Saxons under Cerdic and Cynric in 495.

The accounts of the invasions of the Angles are scantier and less circumstantial than those of the Jutes or Saxons, perhaps because nearly all the records of this period come from West Saxon sources. Whatever records may have been retained in Northumbria seems to have disappeared in the anarchy of the eighth century or during the Danish invasions of the ninth. It is only possible to note the general course of the Angle invasion. Landing at various points along the coast, they seem to have pushed far into the interior, along these great rivers which form the natural highways of England, the Humber, the Forth and others. Slowly pushing their way to the north and west they reached at length the borders of Strathclyde and the Highlands of Scotland. Of the seven kingdoms Northumbria formed by a union of Deira and Bernicia, East Anglia, comprising the territory of the north-folk and the south-folk, and the greater part of Mercia - the part held by the middle English, by the Gyrwas and by the Southumbrians, belonged to the Angles.

№ 22. Scandinavian Invasions and its influence.

Though the Scandinavian invasions of England are dated in OE period, their effect on the language is particularly apparent in ME. We may recall that since the 8^th c. the British Isles were ravaged by sea rovers from Scandinavia, first by Danes, later-by Norwegians. By the end of the 9^th c. Danes had succeeded in obtaining a permanent footing in England; more than half of England was yielded to the invaders and recognized as Danish territory-“Danelaw”. While some of Scandinavians came to England merely to plunder and return to their homeland, others made their permanent home in North East England. In the early years of the occupation the Danish settlements were little more than armed camps. But gradually the conditions stabilized and Danes began to bring their families. The new settlers and the English intermarried and intermixed; they lived close together and didn’t differ either in social rank or in the level of culture and customs; they intermingled the more easily as there was no linguistic barrier between them. The colonization and the intermixture of the newcomers with their former foes continued from 9^th c. on, during two hundred years, which witnessed diverse political events: the reconquest of Danelaw under Alfred’s successors, the renewal of Scandinavian onslaughts in the late 10^th c. under Sweyne and the political annexation of England by Denmark under Canute.

The effect of the Danish Conquest was a contribution of many Scandinavian words to the English vocabulary.

The criterion of sound in many cases may be applied in distinguishing Scandinavian words. Since in native English words the [sk] sound had regularly changed to [sh] and since the [k] sound before the vowels ‘e’ and ‘I’ had regularly changed to [ch], the greater part of the Germanic words in English with the [sk] sound such as scare, skill, skin, skirt, sky and many words with the[ k] sound before ‘e’ and ‘ I’, such as kettle, keg, kirk are to be assigned to Scandinavian origin.

In cases where the Scandinavian form of a word differed from the English form, sometimes both forms survived with a different meaning.

The Scandinavian influence was especially marked in place-names in Northern England, Among the more common ones are those ending in-by (0. N. byr, a dwelling, village); in -beck (has been used as an inde¬pendent word since 1300 especially in the North; 0. N. bekker, a brook, Ger. Bach); in-dale (O. N. Dalr, a valley, Ger. Thai); in thorp or-torp (0. N thorp, a hamlet, village); in -toft (O. N, toft a homestead, enclosure) and in -twaite (0. N. veiti, a clearing). In some cases when the English word and the Scandinavian agreed in form, the Scandinavian form has imported a new meaning to the English. Thus dream in О. Е. meant toy, but in Middle English the modern meaning of dream was taken over from O.N. draumr. The same is true of bread (formerly meaning a fragment or bloom (O. E. bloma, mass of metal), plough (О. Е. ploh, a measure of land); holm (О. Е. holm, ocean).

A number of common words which existed in Old English have been assimilated to the kindred Scandinavian synonyms only in form (e. g. sister descends not from the Old English sweoster, but from the O. N. syster. The same is true of such everyday words as birth, get, give, etc.

Sometimes the Scandinavians gave a fresh lease of life to obsolescent or obsolete native words. The preposition till, for instance, is found only once or twice in Old English texts belonging to the pre-Scandinavian period, but after that time it begins to be exceedingly common in the North, from whence it spreads southward. The same is true of the words barn, blend and dale.

From no other foreign source has the English language derived words so elemental in character. Scandinavian elements combine with native elements in hybrid compounds such as awkward and greyhound. Since these Scandinavian words are, as has been mentioned already, so nearly related to the Anglo-Saxon, and since they were borrowed so early and have consequently undergone changes in form and in meaning along with the Anglo-Saxon element, one may almost reckon them as belonging to the native stock of English words. In later periods of English, history the contact between English and Scandinavian-speaking peoples was never so close.

№23. Scandinavian borrowings.

By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in common. As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English.

Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life, their cultural level was the same, they had much in common in their literature therefore there were many words in these languages which were almost identical, e.g.

However there were also many words in the two languages which were different, and some of them were borrowed into English, such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.

Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens very seldom, such as: same, both, till, fro, though, and pronominal forms with «th»: they, them, their. Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs, which did not exist in Old English, at the same time some prefixed verbs came out of usage, e.g. ofniman, beniman. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive in English /take off, give in etc/.

№24 The Norman Conquest and its influence on English

The Norman conquest of England was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman, Breton, and French soldiers led by Duke William II of Normandy, later William the Conqueror.

William's claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged William's hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson. The Norwegian king Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066, was victorious at the Battle of Fulford, but Harold defeated and killed him at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066. Within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north. Harold's army confronted William's invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings; William's force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement.

Although William's main rivals were gone, he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated; some of the elite fled into exile. To control his new kingdom, William gave lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. Other effects of the conquest included the court and government, the introduction of Norman French as the language of the elites, and changes in the composition of the upper classes, as William enfeoffed lands to be held directly from the king. More gradual changes affected the agricultural classes and village life: the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery, which may or may not have been linked to the invasion. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government.

---Influence of the Norman Conquest.

Changes in English

Norman Conquest also had a big influence in English. Since they had settled in Normandy, in the north of French, their language was Norman-French, which was different from French spoken in Paris called Central French. Thus, Norman-French became the official language in England. Norman- French became the exclusive language of the rich, nobles, ecclesiastics, knights, and priests, used in courts, schools, government, and churches while the exclusive language in England was Latin. Aristocrats and people of the high class spoke French and also literature works were written in French. The Anglo-Saxons in England still spoke English, and because it became only oral but not written language, it then simplified after the Conquest.

Norman Conquest changed the traditional concept of throwing over the changes of the spoken tongue. Foreign monks’ coming to England to give some literary instruction caused the cease of all the trainings in using English. Although the upper and the middle class of English preferred to speak their mother tongue, they read and wrote Latin and French in school, and this made them have almost no ability to write as their ancestors but to write words they spoke in daily life. Thus, Old English changed so fast into Middle English.

The Conquest also influenced the inflectional structure of English. Under new politics and administrations of Normans, it was easier to communicate with different parts of people from the country, and this also helped to bring those grammatical simplifications from the north to the south. The large amount of French vocabulary also brought about the disuse of inflectional endings. That the prepositions were in use instead of the genitive inflection and the polite plural in pronouns of the second person were substituted for the singular were probably both due to the imitation of French tones of expression.

English was enriched by the naturalization of methods of expression and the ideas to be expressed were largely increased because of the influx of Norman methods and ideas. Also, that scholarship and learning were strengthened by European scholars’ coming enriched English in certain degree and bound Paris and Oxford.

In addition to the influence of English society and inflectional structure, the Norman Conquest also had impact on the language itself. English was completely replaced by both Latin and French, in each side of literature, law, and official documentation. There was a large portion, about 60 percent, in English vocabulary that came from either Latin or French.

Most of the vocabulary influenced by French was of high class. During the days after the Conquest, Normans were in the high class and they feasted, the English labored. Words used in the labored English were those like ox, cow, pig, and deer; however, after these animals were killed and then cooked, they became the French words beef, pork, and venison. Many Norman-French words were mixed and we still use them until today. Words like tax, mercy, army, battle, dance, paper, and rage are load-words from French. The pronunciation of these words were changed into English pronunciation, thus we almost cannot distinguish them from French. The assimilation of a large range of French words made English not only like Germanic but like Romance: there are characteristics of Germanic and good sides of Romance in English. English also developed its own variation: declension disappeared gradually and there were no “sexes” in grammar—the grammar became “natural” sex. Its vocabulary became richer than ever due to the influence of French while its syntax was simplifying.

Although English assimilated to foreign languages, it still developed its way of expression. It is a growing language, and after it was changed in inflections and added to a large amount of vocabulary, it imitated less and branched out its own ways. The Norman Conquest speeded up the transition of Old English to Middle English and changed it into an analyzed language. It also set the road for English to be a superior language in the modern society.

25)Французские заимствования в английском языке

Heavy borrowing from French occurred in two phases:

1. 1066-1250. About 900 words were borrowed during this phase, with most of them showing the effects of Anglo-Norman phonology. Examples from this source are:

Social: baron, noble, dame, servant, messenger, feast, minstrel, juggler, largess.

Literary: story, rime, lay, douzepers.

Church: The largest number of words were borrowed for use in religious services since the French-speaking Normans took control of the church in England.

2. 1250-1400. The heaviest borrowing from French occurred in this period because after about 1250 there were more French speakers who began speaking English--remember the loss of Normandy in 1204. The words borrowed during this phase are found in many areas.

Government and Administrative: govern, government, administer, crown, state, empire, royal, majesty, treaty, statute, parliament, tax, rebel, traitor, treason, exile, chancellor, treasurer, major, noble, peer, prince, princess, duke, squire, page (but notking, queen, lord, lady, earl), peasant, slave, servant, vassal.

Ecclesiastical: religion, theology, sermon, confession, clergy, clergy, cardinal, friar, crucifix, miter, censer lectern, abbey, convent, creator, savior, virgin, faith, heresy, schism, solemn, divine, devout, preach, pray, adore, confess.

Law: justice, equity, plaintiff, judge, advacate, attorney, petition, inquest, felon, evidence, sue, accuse arrest, blame, libel, slander, felony, adultery, property, estate, heir, executor.

Military--Army and Navy: (Much of the fighting during this time was done in France. Many now-obsolete words for pieces of armor, etc., were borrowed at this time.) army, navy, peace, enemy, arms, battle, spy, combat, siege, defence, ambush, soldier, guard, mail, buckler, banner, lance, besiege, defend, array.

Clothing: habit, gown, robe, garment, attire, cape, coat, collar, petticoat, train, lace, embroidery, pleat, buckle, button, tassel, plume, satin, taffeta, fur, sable, blue, brown, vermilion, russet, tawny, jewel, ornament, broach, ivory, turquoise, topaz, garnet, ruby, pearl, diamond.

Food: feast, repast, collation, mess, appetite, tart, sole, perch, sturgeon, sardine, venison, beef, veal, mutton, port, bacon, toast, cream, sugar, salad, raisin, jelly, spice, clove, thyme.

Social: curtain, couch, lamp, wardrobe, screen, closet, leisure, dance, carol, lute, melody.

Hunting: rein, curry, trot, stable, harness, mastiff, spaniel, stallion, pheasant, quail, heron, joust, tournament, pavilion.

Art, Learning, Medicine: painting, sculpture, music, beauty, color, image, cathedral, palace, mansion, chamber, ceiling, porch, column, poet, prose, romance, paper, pen, volume, chapter, study, logic, geometry, grammar, noun, gender, physician, malady, pain, gout, plague, pulse, remedy, poison.

Common words and expressions include nouns--age, air, city, cheer, honor, joy; adjectives--chaste, courageous, coy, cruel, poor, nice, pure; verbs--advance, advise, carry, cry, desire; phrases--draw near, make believe, hand to hand, by heart, without fail (These are loan-translations).

Many of the above words differ from Modern French in form and pronunciation because of phonological changes such as the following:

• French /s/ was lost before other consonants in the 12th century, so OF feste became MF fête (MnE feast). Cf. forest--forêt, hostel--hôtel, beast--bête.

• In the 13th century the French `j' came to be pronounced `zh', and `ch' became `sh'. Early borrowings (i.e., before the 13th century) thus have the `ch' and `j' pronunciations: charge, change, chamber, chase, chair, chimney; just, jewel, journey, majesty, gentle. Later borrowings (i.e., after the 13th century) have the `zh' and `sh' pronunciations: chamois, chaperon, chiffon, chevron, jabot (last trim on the front of a dress), rouge.

• The Anglo-Norman dialect was also different from the dialect of Paris, which was Central French: AN retained the initial ca-, which became cha-, chie- in CF, e.g.: MnE caitiff, not CF chaitif. English contains words borrowed from both dialects at different times, e.g.:

• cattle < AN catel catch < AN cachier

• chattel < CF chatel chase < CF chacier (MF chasser)

• CF also showed an early dislike of w-, but the northern dialects did not, e.g.: warden from AN and guardian from CF. CF also dropped the /w/ in qu- (i.e., AN /kw/, CF /k/), so MnE has quarter, quality, question, etc., pronounced /kw-/. (cf. MF qualité, etc.)

Vowels also show some differences. For example, AN retained the ei diphthong, but in the 12th century it became oi in CF, so:

MnE leal < AN leial MnE loyal < CF

MnE real < AN reial MnE royal < CF

Some 10,000 French words were borrowed into Middle English, and about 75% (7500) of these words are still in use. These words were quickly assimilated into English; i.e., English suffixes, etc., were freely added to the borrowed French words; e.g., gentle, borrowed in 1225, is found compounded with an English word, gentlewoman, in 1230.

This heavy borrowing from French had several effects on English:

1. Native words were replaced:

OE aeðele -- F. noble

OE aeðeling -- F. nobleman

OE here -- F. army

OE campa -- F. warrior

OE sibb -- F. peace

2. English and French words were retained with a differentiation in meaning:

hearty--cordial

ox--beef

sheep--mutton

swine--pork

calf--veal

house--mansion

3. The Old English word-forming powers were reduced, with less use of prefixes and suffixes and fewer compounds.

Latin Borrowings. In a sense the French words were Latin borrowings since French developed from Vulgar Latin--as did all the Romance languages. The borrowings that came directly from Latin tended to be more learned in character--e.g., allegory, index, magnify, mechanical, private, secular, zenith. Aureate terms--direct borrowings from Latin--were a stylistic affectation of the 15th century Scottish Chaucerians such as James I, Henryson, and Dunbar. Some of these words have been dropped from English (or never really made it in) while others have survived, e.g., diurnal (daily or daytime), tenebrous (dark), laureate, mediation, oriental, prolixity.

It has been pointed out that as a result of Middle English borrowing from French and Latin, Modern English has synonyms on three levels: popular (English), literary (French), and learned (Latin), as in rise--mount--ascend; ask--question--interrogate; fire--flame--conflagration; holy--sacred--consecrated.

26) Иностранные заимствования эпохи Возрождения.

The Renaissance brought a multitude of classical words, particularly from France and Italy, increasing the Latin influence on language in England. But Italy, along with Spain, contributed few borrowed words because the English language was nearly completely formed by this age. The new words and phrases enriched the British language, but Jespersen believes at somewhat of a cost. Because of the various invasions, the English had, over time, begun to “shrink from consciously coining new words out of native material.” That concept brings us full circle back to the “physical mobility and mental laziness” aspect of borrowing words.

The effects of the Renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We see the beginnings of a huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned words imported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings from other languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presence felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.

Latin

agile, abdomen, anatomy, area, capsule, compensate, dexterity,

discus, disc/disk, excavate, expensive, fictitious, gradual, habitual,

insane, janitor, meditate, notorious, orbit, peninsula, physician,

superintendent, ultimate, vindicate

Greek

(many of these via Latin)

anonymous, atmosphere, autograph, catastrophe, climax, comedy, critic,

data, ectasy, history, ostracize, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton,

tonic, tragedy

Greek bound morphemes: -ism, -ize

Arabic via Spanish

alcove, algebra, zenith, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, alchemy, admiral

Arabic via other Romance languages:

amber, cipher, orange, saffron, sugar, zero, coffee

27)Вокализация согласных в средне-английский и ново-английский периоды.

The Meddle English

English consonants were on the whole far more stable than vowels. A large number of consonants have probably remained unchanged through all historical periods. Thus we can assume that the sonorants [m, n, l], plosives [p, b, t, d] and also [k, g] in most positions have not been subjected to any noticeable changes. The most important developments in the history of English consonants were the growth of new sets of sounds, - affricates and sibilants.

Growth of sibilants and affricates

In OE there were no affricates and no sibilants, except [s, z]. the new type of consonants developed from OE palatal plosives [k’, g’], which had split from the corresponding velar plosives [k] and [g], and also from the consonant cluster [sk’]. The three new phonemes which arose from these sources were [t∫], [dз] and [∫]. In Early ME they began to be indicated by special letters and digraphs, which came into use mainly under the influence of the French scribal tradition – ch, tch, g, dg, sh, ssh, sch. As a result of these changes – and also as a result of the vocalization of [γ] – the consonant system in Late ME was in some respects different from the OE system.

In Early Modern English, various circumstances of L-vocalization and L-dropping happened as a process where the postvocalic */ɫ/ in */aɫ/ or */ɔɫ/ either disappeared or vocalized, usually with some kind ofdiphthongalization or compensatory lengthening effect on the preceding vowel. Most of these changes were very regular (still having a fundamental influence on English spelling pronunciations), but the effects could vary widely depending on which consonant came after the */ɫ/.

• Most of the "alf" and "alv" series (/æf/ and /æv/) dropped the /l/ completely and genuinely without a trace. Affected examples include calf, half, halve, salve. Ralph is a more complex case, with regional pronunciations of /rælf/, /rɑːlf/, /rɑːf/ and /reɪf/. At least one significant word of the "olf" series, golf, dropped the /l/ in some British accents (/ɡɒf/), but most other accents retained the /l/ (/ɡɒlf/ or /ɡɔːlf/). Other irregularly affected examples include salmon and solder, both with short vowels but a silent /l/. The "olv" series (such as solve) was not affected, retaining both its regular vowel and its pronounced /l/.

• The "alm" and "olm" series dropped the /l/ while broadly lengthening the vowel, initially as *[ɑːm] and *[oːm], with the latter becoming modern /oʊm/ with the toe–tow merger. Affected examples include alms, balm,calm, Chalmers, qualm, palm, psalm and Holmes, the last of which is a homophone with homes. Some accents (including many of American English) still pronounce the /l/ in these words as a spelling pronunciation.

• The word-final "all" and "oll" series underwent partial L-vocalization, initially as *[ɔʊɫ] and *[oʊɫ], then arriving at modern /ɔːl/ and /oʊl/. Affected examples of the "all" series include all, ball, call, fall, gall, hall, mall,pall, small, squall, stall, tall, thrall and wall, and these syllables all rhyme with bawl, brawl, caul, crawl, drawl, haul, maul, Paul, Saul, scrawl, shawl and trawl. The word shall is not affected, irregularly keeping its otherwise regular short vowel. Affected examples of the "oll" series include control, droll, knoll, poll, roll, scroll, stroll, toll and troll, all of whose syllables came to rhyme with bowl, Rowling and soul, and since thetoe–tow merger have also rhymed with coal, cole, foal, goal, hole, mole, pole, role, shoal, sole, stole, tole and vole. Certain words of more recent origin didn't undergo these changes, and are mostly distinguished by being spelled with just one l, such as in Al, alcohol, doll, Hal, pal and Sal.

• Most other "alC" and "olC" series (where C is an arbitrary coronal consonant or velar consonant) initially followed the same trend as "all" and "oll", with /ɔːlC/ and /oʊlC/ pronunciations affecting a wide variety of words. Affected words of the "alC" series include alter, bald, Balt, false, falter, halt, malt, palsy, salsa, salt, scald, Walsh, Walter and waltz, joining similar words such as fault and vault. The word shalt is not affected, irregularly keeping its otherwise regular short vowel. Affected words of the "olC" series include bold, bolt, cold, colt, dolt, fold, Folger, gold, hold, holt, jolt, mold, molt, old, polder, scold, smolder, sold, toldand wold (as in "country"), joining similar words such as boulder (or bowlder), mould (alt. sp. of mold), moult (alt. sp. of molt), shoulder and smoulder (alt. sp. of smolder).

• But "alk" and "olk" went even further, becoming modern /ɔːk/ and /oʊk/ with no pronunciation of /l/. Homophone "aulk" words also dropped their /l/ at this time. Affected examples of the "alk" (and "aulk") series include balk, caulk, chalk, Dundalk, falcon (not in all accents), talk and walk, and these relevant syllables all rhyme with auk, Faulkner, Fawkes, gawk and hawk. Affected examples of the "olk" series include folk,Polk, polka and yolk, which since the toe–tow merger also rhyme with bloke, broke, choke, coke, croak, joke, oak, poke, smoke, soak, woke and yoke. The /l/ in certain words like caulk, polka and yolk are still pronounced in some accents, but this is considered a spelling pronunciation. Certain words of more recent origin were not always systematically affected by these changes, so words like talc retain both their short vowel and their pronounced /l/.

• The "alp" series was not affected at all, keeping its short vowel and its pronounced /l/. This includes words like Alps and scalp. The effect on the "alb" series is less predictable, owing to its rare occurrence in English; Albany uses /ɔːl/, while Albania uses /æl/.

• In Hiberno-English there is L-vocalization, and the vowels are generally affected as stated, but L-dropping virtually never occurs; the /l/ is pronounced in all these circumstances. The city Dundalk is pronounced/dʌndɔːlk/ in Hiberno-English, but is pronounced /dʌndɔːk/ in most of the rest of the Anglosphere.

In AAVE, l-dropping may occur when the /l/ sound comes after a vowel and before a labial consonant in the same syllable, causing pronunciations like /hɛp/ for help and /sɛf/ for self

28)Смягчение и исчезновение согласных

Middle-English and New English period

Loss of Some Consonants In NE some consonants were vocalised or gave birth to diphthongs and triphthongs. • [r] was vocalised at the end of the word in the 16th -17th c. (see Lecture 11);  • [j] disappeared as a result of palatalisation (see palatalisation in Lecture 12); [j] remained only initially (e.g. year, yard, etc.); • [х, х’] were lost (e.g. ME taughte [‘tauхtə] – NE taught [to:t], ME night [niх’t] – NE night [neit] • [kn]  [n] (e.g. ME know [knou] – NE know [nou]); • [gn]  [n] (e.g. ME gnat [gnat] – NE gnat [næt]);

Вопрос 29. Development of sibilants and Affricates in middle english and new englsh.

The earliest distinct sets of these sounds appeared towards the end

of OE or during the Early ME period The new type of consonants de-

veloped from OE palatal plosives [k', g'] (which had split from the

corresponding velar plosives [k] and [g] in Early OE, and

also from the consonant cluster [sk']. The three new phonemes which

arose from these sources were [ts]. [dj] and [s] In Early ME they

began to be indicated by special letters and digraphs, which came into

use mainly under the influence of the French scribal tradition — ch.

tch. R, dg, sh, ssh, sch.

It must be added that the affricates [ts] and [dj] could also come

from a different source: they entered the English language in loanwords from French, e.g. ME charm I'tjarmal, gin til (djen'till frorn

0 Fr charme and gentil. As a result of these changes — and also as a result of the vocalisation

of [y] — the consonant system in Late ME was in some

respects different from the OE system. The opposition of velar consonants to palatal — [k, k'; y, j]— had disappeared: instead, plosive consonants were contrasted to the new affricates and in the set of affricates [ts] was opposed to [dj] through sonority.

§ 404. Another development accounting for the appcarance of sibilants

and affricates in the English language is dated in Early NE

and is connected with the phonetic assimilation of lexical borrowings.

In the numerous loan-words of Romance origin adopted in ME and

Early NE the stress fell on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, e.g.

ME na'cioun, plea'saunce (NE nation, pleasance). In accordance with

the phonetic tendencies the stress was moved closer to the beginning

of the word. The final syllables which thus became unstressed,

or weakly stressed, underwent phonetic alterations: the vowels

were reduced and sometimes dropped; the sounds making up the syllable

became less distinct. As a result some sequences of consonants fused

into single consonants.

In Early NE the clusters [sj, zj. tj. dj] — through reciprocal as-

similation in unstressed position — regularly changed into [s, з. tj.

dj]. Three of these sounds. [s. ts, dj]. merged with the phonemes already

existing in the language, while the fourth. [dj] made a new phoneme.

Now the four sounds formed a well-balanced system of two correlated

pairs: [s, 3], [ts, d3].

Вопрос 30. The Great Vowel Shift. The great vowel shift was a major change in the pronunciation of the English language that took place in the south of England between 1450 and 1750. The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), a Danish linguist and Anglicist, who coined the term. The values of the long vowels form the main difference between the pronunciation of Middle English and Modern English, and the Great Vowel Shift is one of the historical events marking the separation of Middle and Modern English. Originally, these vowels had "continental" values much like those remaining in Italian and liturgical Latin. However, during the Great Vowel Shift, the two highest long vowels became diphthongs, and the other five underwent an increase in tongue height with one of them coming to the front.The principal changes (with the vowels shown in IPA) are roughly as follows. However, exceptions occur, the transitions were not always complete, and there were sometimes accompanying changes in orthography:

Middle English [aː] (ā) fronted to [æː] and then raised to [ɛː], [eː] and in many dialects diphthongised in Modern English to [eɪ] (as in make). Since Old English ā had mutated to [ɔː] in Middle English, Old English ā does not correspond to the Modern English diphthong [eɪ].

Middle English [ɛː] raised to [eː] and then to modern English [iː] (as in beak).

Middle English [eː] raised to Modern English [iː] (as in feet).

Middle English [iː] diphthongised to [ɪi], which was most likely followed by [əɪ] and finally Modern English [aɪ] (as in mice).

Middle English [ɔː] raised to [oː], and in the eighteenth century this became Modern English [oʊ] or [əʊ] (as in boat).

Middle English [oː] raised to Modern English [uː] (as in boot).

Middle English [uː] was diphthongised in most environments to [ʊu], and this was followed by [əʊ], and then Modern English [aʊ] (as in mouse) in the eighteenth century. Before labial consonants, this shift did not occur, and [uː] remains as in soup).

Вопрос 31. Development of Analytical Verb forms: future tense, subjunctive mood.

OE finite verbs had 2 verbal grammatical categories proper: Mood and Tense. Now it has 5 (mood tense aspect time-correlation voice). All the new forms which have been included in the verb paradigm are analytical forms; all the synthetic ones are direct descendents of OE forms.

FUTURE TENSE. In OE there was no form of the Future t. there was only Past and Present tenses. To indicate future actions present tense was used; modal phrases, consisting of verbs sculan willan maZan cunnan (NE shall will may can) and others; and Infinitive of the notional verb. In ME the use of modal phrases, esp with shall, became increasingly common. Shall + infinitive was the principal means indicating future actions. Shall could retain its modal meaning of necessity but often weakened it to such an extent that the phrase denoted ‘pure’ futurity. In late ME texts it was used both as a modal v and as future t auxiliary. To express future actions in ME willen with an Ind was commonly used but the modal meaning (of volition) must have been more obvious than shall. In the age of Shakespeare the phrases with will and shall as well as present t of notional verbs, occurred in free variation; they can express ‘pure’ futurity and add diff shades of modal meanings. In 1653 John Wallis for the first time formulated the rule about the regular interchange of shall and will depending on person. Those rules were repeated in many grammar books in the 19th c. and it has become a mark of the British Standard.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. In OE the forms of the Subj. Mood were synthetic. In the course of ME and Early NE there sprang up several new analytical forms of the Subj. Mood. In ME the formal distinction btw the Subj. and Ind. Were to a large extent neutralized. In OE modal phrases consisting of sculan willan maZan cunnan and Inf. Were commonly used to indicate fut actions. In ME more modal phrases were introduced but sholde and wolde outnumbered the other verbs. They could weaken or even lose their lexical meanings and turn into auxiliaries. By the age of Shakespeare the change was complete and these forms became formal markers of the new analytical forms of the Subj. Mood. The same rules as for will shall were introduced and also became standard.

Development of Analytical Verb forms: perfective aspect, diff btw prior and non-prior actions.

Like other analytical forms of the verb the Perf form have developed from OE verb phrases. The main source was OE ‘possessive’ construction of the verb habban (have)a direct O and Part II of a transitive verb which served as an attribute to the O. the meaning was a person(S) possessed a thing(O). the participle agreed with the noun-O in Nr Gender case. Originally habban was used only with part of transitive verbs then it came to be used with V taking genitival datival and prepositional Os and even with intransitive V. the other source of Perf forms was the OE phrase consisting of the ling-V bēon and Part II of the intransitive V. towards ME the two verb phrases turned into analytical forms and made up a single set of forms termed ‘perfect’. The participles had lost their forms of agreement with the noun the place of the O and the participle construction with haven changed: the part usually stood close to the V have and was followed by the O with referred now to the analytical form as a whole. In perf form the auxiliary have lost the meaning of possession. By the literary age of renaissance the perf forms have spread to all parts of the V system.

In the beginning the main function of perf forms was to indicate completed action, rather than priority of one action to another and relevance to the subsequent situation. For long time these forms were used as synonymous to simple past. Towards the age of Shakespeare the contrast btw pef and non-perf forms became more obvious. The category of Time correlation was established in the 17th c.

development of analytical verb forms: continuous aspect, passive voice.

The development of Aspect is linked up with the growth of the Continuous forms. This growth was slow and uneven. Verb phrases consisting of bēon (be)+ Pasrt I are not infrequently found in OE prose. They denoted a quality or a lasting state characterizing the person or thing indicated by the S of the sentence. In early ME ben + Part I fell into disuse; it occurs occasionally in some dialectal areas. In late ME it extended to other dialects and again became frequent. At that stage the construction did not differ from the simple V from in meaning and was used as its synonym mainly for emphasis and vividness of description. In the 15th and 16th c be+ part I was often confused with a synonymous phrase – be+preposition on+ verbal noun. By that time the Pres Part and the verbal noun had lost their formal diff: part I was built with the help of –ing ad the verbal N had the word building suffix –ing. The prepositional phrase indicated a process taking place at a certain period of time. It is believed that meaning of process or action of limited duration may have come from the prepositional phrase. The non-cont simple form can indicate an action in progress which takes place before the eyes of the speaker (now-cont form). In the 18th c cont forms acquired a specific meaning of their own. And then cont and non-cont made up a new grammatical category – aspect. The meaning of non-cont –indef- forms became more restricted.

For many hundred years the cont forms were not used in the pass voice. In late ME the act voice of the cont form was sometimes used with a passive meaning. The active form of the cont aspect was employed in the passive meaning until 19th c. the earliest written evidence of the pass cnt is found in a private letter of 18th c. this new form aroused protests of many scholars but in spite of all these protests the pass voice of the cont aspect continued to be used and eventually was recognized as correct.

Вопрос 32.middle english word formation: compounding and affixing; compound nouns (gentleman, cheesecake, nightmare) (noun +verb as ME innovation, e.g. sunshine, manhandle); compound adjectives (threadbare, bloodred, everyday); compound verbs (outline, uphold); clipping (distress > stress, amend > mend); back formation (Scandinavian foggy > fog; Latin aspis > asp, English dawning > dawn); blends or portmanteau words (escrow + roll > scroll, sprout + crawl > scrawl); common nouns from proper nouns (Jacques > jacket); onomatopoetic (echoic) words (tehee)

New english word formation.

2 major groups of word formation: 1) words, formed as grammatical syntagmas, combinations of full linguistic signs (types: compounding (словосложение), prefixation, suffixation, conversion, back derivation).

2) words, which are not grammatical syntagmas, which are not made up of full linguistic signs. Ex.: expressive symbolism, blending, clipping, rhyme & some others.

Different types of word formation:

- COMPOUNDING is joining together 2 or more stems.

Types: 1) without a connecting element (headache, heartbreak); 2) with a vowel or consonant as a linking element (speedometer, craftsman); 3) with a preposition or conjunction as a linking element down-and-out (опустошенный) son-in-law.

- PREFIXATION Prefixes are such particles that can be prefixed to full words. But are themselves not with independent existence.

- SUFFIXATION A suffix is a derivative final element which is or was productive in forming new words. It has semantic value, but doesn’t occur as an independent speech use.

- CONVERSION (zero derivation) A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word without a derivative element being added.(Bag – to bag)

- BACK DERIVATION is deraving a new word, which is morphologically simpler from a more complex word.  ( A babysitter – to babysit     Television – to televise)

- PHONETIC SYMBOLISM is using characteristic speech sounds for name giving. Very often we imitate by the speech sounds what we hear: (tinkle, splash, t).

- CLIPPING Consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts.     ( Mathematics – maths)

- BLENDING is blending part of two words to form one word  ( Smoke + fog = smog)

33) the spread of english – мне не нравится, но ничего лучше не нашла, или слишком много, или вот так

From the seventeenth century onwards, the English began to extend their language over the world. It is due to so important factors as the power of the British Empire, the importance in the Industrial revolution taking place in England for the first time or the supremacy of America in all over the world. Moreover, we all know that English has become a global language in the last fifty years, being the official language of the international and multinational companies and industries, and the language of Internet.

There were other minor spreads of the language, as for instance the spread of English to Scotland because of the military escapades of William the Conqueror (11th century) or to Ireland with the Anglo-Norman troops sent by Henry II.

But in global terms, the spread of English began in 16th century, when the language became a tool of imperial expansion, and end up by gaining a special place in the history of a significant number of countries. This was what happened in USA, but also in other colonial areas.

17th and 18th centuries -English spread as a result of British colonialism

18th and 19th centuries -English spread as the language of British leadership in the Industrial Revolution

Late 19th and early 20th c. -English spread as the language of American economic superiority and political leadership.

Second half of 2th c. - English spread as a consequence of American technological domination.

34) The  formation  of  the English   national  language. It began with late Middle English - Early New English (1475 - 1660; 16th – 19th c.).   The following external (outer) factors which favoured the rise of the national language and the literary standards are: 1.   the unification of the country and 2.   the progress of culture The unification of the country was favoured by the result of the war between the white and the Red Rose (1455 - 1485) which led to the decay of feudalism, the rise of an  absolute  monarchy  and  a  political  centralization,  and  consequently a linguistic centralization which led to a predominance of the national language over local dialects.

The decay of feudalism led to a new social order - capitalism.

The capitalism order caused changes in economic and social conditions: they led to the   intermixture   of people  to  the   developing  of trade   beyond   the   local boundaries. All over the world the victory of capitalism over feudalism led to the consolidation of people into nations, to the formation of national languages and as a result of it to a national standard.

35) Тhe history of printing in England

(из книги) Progress of Culture. Introduction of Printing

§ 313. The 15th and 16th c. in Western Europe are marked by a renewed interest in classical art and literature and by a general efflorescence of culture. The rise of a new vigorous social class — the bourgeoisie— proved an enormous stimulus to the progress of learning, science, literature and art.

The universities at Oxford and Cambridge (founded in the 12th c.) became the centres of new humanistic learning. Henry VIII assembled at his court a group of brilliant scholars and artists. Education had ceased to be the privilege of the clergy; it spread to laymen and people of lower social ranks. After the Reformation teachers and tutors could be laymen as well as clergymen.

As before, the main subject in schools was Latin; the English language was labelled as "a rude and barren tongue", fit only to serve as an instrument in teaching Latin. Scientific and philosophical treatises were written in Latin, which was not only the language of the church but also the language of philosophy and science. The influence of classical languages on English grew and was reflected in the enrichment of the vocabulary.

§314. Of all the outstanding achievements of this great age, the invention of printing had the most immediate effect on the development of the language, its written form in particular. "Artificial writing"» as printing was then called, was invented in Germany in 1438 (by Johann Gutenberg); the first printer of English books was William Caxton.

William Caxton (1422—1491) was born in Kent. In 1441 he moved to Flanders, where he spent over three decades of his life. During a visit to Cologne he learned the method of printing and in 1473 opened up his own printing press in Bruges, The first English book, printed in Bruges in 1475, was Caxton*s translation of the story of Troy RECUYELL OF THE HISTORYES OF TROYE. A few years later he brought his press over to England and set it up in Westminster, not far outside the city of London. All in all about one hundred books were issued by his press and about a score of them were either translated or edited by Caxton himself.

Among the earliest publications were the poems of Geoffrey Chaucer, still the most popular poet in England, the poems of John Gower, the compositions of John Lydgate, the most voluminous poet of the age, Trevisa's translation of the POL YCHRON ICON, and others. Both Caxton and his associates took a greater interest in the works of medieval literature than in the works of ancient authors or theological and scientific treatises published by the printers on the continent.  About one quarter of his publications were translations from French, e. g.: RECUYELL OF THE HiSTORYES OF TROYE mentioned above, GAME AND PLAYE OF THE CHESSE, the famous romance of knightly adventure MORTE D'ARTHUR ("Death of Arthur4) by Thomas Malory, one of the last works in this genre.

In preparing the manuscripts for publication William Caxton and his successors edited them so as to bring them into conformity with the London form of English used by their contemporaries. In doing this they sometimes distorted the manuscripts considerably. Their corrections enable us to see some of the linguistic changes that had occurred since the time when the texts were first written. Here are some substitutions made by Caxton in Trevisa's POLYCHRONJCON, written a hundred years before:

TrevEsa: i-cleped, ich, steihe, as me troweth  chapinge; Caxton: called, /, ascended, as men supposed, market.

§ 315. It is difficult to overestimate the influence of the first printers in fixing and spreading the written form of English. The language they used was the London literary English established since the age of Chaucer and slightly modified in accordance with the linguistic changes that bad taken place during the intervening hundred years. With cheap printed books becoming available to a greater number of readers, the London form of speech was carried to other regions and was imitated in the Written works produced all over England. The greatest influence exerted by the printers was that on the writ-ten form of the word. Caxton's spelling, for all its irregularities and inconsistencies, was more normalised than the chaotic spelling of the man uscripts. The written forms of many words perpetuated by Caxton were accepted as standard and have often remained unchanged to the present day in spite of the drastic changes in pronunciation. It should be noted that Caxton's spelling faithfully reproduced the spelling of the preceding century and was conservative even in his day.

In conclusion we may recall that so great was the effect of printing on the development of the language that the year 1475 — the date of the publication of the first English book — is regarded as a turning point in English linguistic history and the start of a new period — NE.

36) Periodisation

The historical development of a language is a continuous uninterrupted process without sudden breaks or rapid transformations. The commonly accepted, traditional Periodisation divides English history into three periods: Old English (OE), Middle English (ME) and New English (NE). the following Periodisation of English history is based on the conventional three periods; it subdivides the history of the English language into seven periods differing in linguistic situation and the nature of linguistic changes.

OLD ENGLISH

1. The first period, which may be termed Early Old English, lasts from the West Germanic invasion of Britain till the beginning of writing, that is from the 5th to the close of the 7th c. It is the stage of the tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders, which were gradually losing contacts with the related continental tongues. The tribal dialects were used for oral communication, there being no written form of English.

2. The second historical period extends from the 8th c. till the end of the 11th. The English language of that time is referred to as Old English. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional dialects. Towards the end of the period the differences between the dialects grew and their relative position altered. They were probably equal as a medium of oral communication, while in the sphere of writing one of the dialects, West Saxon, had gained supremacy over the other dialects. The language of this period is usually described synchronically and is treated as a more or less stable system.

MIDDLE ENGLISH

1. This period, known as Early Middle English, starts after 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and covers the 12th, 13th and half of the 14th c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian and French. The dialectal division of present-day English owes its origin to this period of history. Under Norman rule the official language in England was French, or rather its variety called Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman; it was also the dominant language of literature.

2. This period – from the later 14th c. till the end of the 15th – embraces the age of Chaucer, the greatest English medieval writer and forerunner of the English Renaissance. We may call it Late or Classical Middle English. It was the time of the restoration of English to the position of the state and literary language and the time of literary flourishing. The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mixed dialect of London. The literary authority of other dialects was gradually overshadowed by the prestige of the London written language.

NEW ENGLISH

1. This period is called Early New English, lasted from the introduction of printing to the age of Shakespeare. The first printed book in English was published by William Caxton in 1475. It was a time of great historical consequence: under the growing capitalist system the country became economically and politically unified. Caxton’s English of the printed books was a sort of bridge between the London literary English of the ME period and the language of the Literary Renaissance. This period was also a time of sweeping changes at all levels, in the first place lexical and phonetic. The growth of the vocabulary was a natural reflection of the progress of culture in the new, bourgeois society.

2. This period extends from the mid-17th c. to the close of the 18th c. In the history of the language it is often called “the age of normalization and correctness”, in the history of literature – the “neoclassical” age. It is essential that during the 18th c. literary English differentiated into distinct styles, which is a property of a mature literary language. The 18th c. has been called the period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great sound shifts were over and pronunciation was being stabilized. Word usage and grammatical construction were subjected to restriction and normalization.

The English language of the 19th and 20th c. represents the seventh period in the history of English. It is called Late New English or Modern English. The classical language of literature was strictly distinguished from the local dialects and the dialects of lower social rank. The dialects were used in oral communication and, as a rule, had no literary tradition. The 20th c. witnessed considerable intermixture of dialects. The local dialects were retreated and displaced by Standard English. The English vocabulary has grown on an unprecedented scale reflecting the rapid progress of technology, science and culture and other multiple changes in all spheres of man’s activity.