42. Basic problems of dictionary-compiling: selection of lexical units, arrangement of entries, selection and arrangement of meanings, definition of meanings.

Some basic problems of dictionary-compiling

1. Selection of Lexical Units No dictionary of any size can register all lexical units.

The Choice of Lexical Units Depends upon: the type of the dictionary; the aim of the compiler; the user of the dictionary.

A Dictionary Compiler Chooses: the type of lexical units; the number of items; what to select and what to leave out in the dictionary.

2. Arrangement of Entries

Types of Arrangement:

1) alphabetical: the basic units are given as main entries that appear in alphabetical order while the derivatives are given as subentries or in the same entry (run-outs).

Run-outs –In the same entry despicable, adj. Vile, contemptible Hence – LY adv.

Subentry – includes definitions

despicable adj. that is or should be despised; contemptible. despicably, adv. in a despicable manner.

Advantage: easy finding of any word and establishing its meaning, frequency value, etc.

2) cluster type: words are arranged in nests, based on this or that principle Advantage: it requires less space and presents a clear picture of the relations of this unit with other words.

3. Selection and Arrangement of Meanings

The number of meanings and their choice depend on: the aim of compilers; their decisions about archaic, dialectical words, etc.

Diachronic dictionaries list more meanings than synchronic dictionaries.

3 ways of meaning arrangement: in the sequence of historical development (historical order); frequency of use (empirical or actual order); logical connection (logical order).

4. Definition of Meanings

Types of definitions:

encyclopedic definition – determine not only the word-meaning, but also the underlying concepts;

descriptive definitions or paraphrases – determine only the word-meaning;

Types of definitions:

synonymous words and expressions – consist of words or word-groups with nearly equivalent meaning;

by means of cross-references. waggle = wiggle

43. Basic problems of dictionary-compiling: illustrative examples, choice of adequate equivalents, setting of the entry, structure of the dictionary.

The work at a dictionary consists of the following main stages: the collection of material, the selection of entries and their arrangement, the setting of each entry.At different stages of his work the lexicographer is confronted with different problems. The most important of the former are 1) the selection of lexical units for inclusion, 2) their arrangement, 3) the setting of the entries, 4) the selection and arrangement (grouping) of word-meanings, 5) the definition of meanings, 6) illustrative material, 7) supplementary material.It would be a mistake to think that there are big academic dictionaries that list everything and that the shorter variants are mere quantitative reductions from their basis. In reality only a dictionary of a dead language or a certain historical period of a living language or a word-book presenting the language of some author (called concordance) can be complete as far as the repertory of the lexical units recorded in the preserved texts goes. The choice of lexical units for inclusion in the prospective dictionary is one of the first problems the lexicographer faces. there is the basic problem of what to select and what to leave out in the dictionary. Which form of the language, spoken or written or both, is the dictionary to reflect? Should the dictionary contain obsolete and archaic units, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms, and so forth?

There is no general reply to any of these questions. The choice among the different possible answers depends upon the type to which the dictionary will belong, its size. As to general explanatory dictionaries, for example, diachronic and synchronic word-books differ greatly in their approach to the problem. Synchronic explanatory dictionaries include mainly common words in ordinary present-day use with only some more important archaic and technical words. Because of the difference between spoken and written language it is to be remembered in dealing with word-books based on printed or written matter that they tend to undervalue the items used more frequently in oral speech and to overweight the purely literary items.The order of arrangement of the entries to be included is different in different types of dictionaries and even in the word-books of the same type. In most dictionaries of various types entries are given in a single alphabetical listing. In some phraseological dictionaries, e.g. in prof. Koonin’s dictionary, the phrases are arranged in accordance with their pivotal (центральный) words which are defined as constant non-interchangeable elements of phrases. Practically, however, most dictionaries are a combination of the two orders of arrangement. In most explanatory and translation dictionaries the main entries, both simple words and derivatives, appear in alphabetical order, with this or that measure of run-ons, thrown out of alphabetical order. One of the most difficult problems nearly ‘ all lexicographers face is recording the word-meanings and arranging them in the most rational way, in the order that is supposed to be of most help to those who will use the dictionary. If one compares the general number of meanings of a word in different dictionaries even those of the same type, one will easily see that their number varies considerably. The number of meanings a word is given and their choice in this or that dictionary depend, mainly, on two factors: 1) on what aim the compilers set themselves and 2) what decisions they make concerning the extent to which obsolete, archaic, dialectal or highly specialised meanings should be recorded, how the problem of polysemy and homonymy is solved, how cases of conversion are treated. Students sometimes think that if the meaning is placed first in the entry, it must be the most important, the most frequent in present-day use. There are at least three different ways in which the word meanings are arranged: in the sequence of their historical development (called historical order), in conformity with frequency of use that is with the most common meaning first and in their logical connection (logical order)

44. Learner's dictionaries: their characteristics and problems of their compilation Learner’s Dictionaries: specially compiled dictionaries to meet the demands of the learners for whom English is not their mother tongue

Features: a strictly limited word-list; a great attention to the functioning of lexical units in speech; a strong normative character of the lexical units included; their compilation is focused on the native linguistic background of the user.

Problems of The Compilation

1. the arrangement of meanings: the actual order (the main meanings before minor ones), literal uses before special,easily understandable uses before difficult.

2. the definition of meanings: descriptive definitions are mostly used; encyclopedic definitions and cross-references are rare; definitions are given in simple terms.

3. the supplementary lists of irregular verbs, common abbreviations, geographical names, etc., common forenames, numerical expressions, the works of William Shakespeare, etc.