6. Speak on the Stylistic analysis on the graphic level.

Graphic means convey in language those emotions which in oral speech are rendered by the intonation. To them belong: spacing, capitalization, italics, bold type, letter multiplication, dots, graphon. In contemporary advertising, mass media and, above all, imaginative prose sound is foregrounded mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation. This intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called graphon. Graphons, indicating irregularities or carelessness of pronunciation were occasionally introduced into English novels and journalism as early as the beginning of the eighteenth century and since then have acquired an ever growing frequency of usage, popularity among writers, journalists, advertizers, and a continuously widening scope of functions. Graphon proved to be an extremely concise but effective means of supplying information about the speaker’s origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition, etc. Graphon, thus individualizing the character’s speech, adds to his plausibility, vividness, memorability. At the same time, graphon is very good at conveying the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech act. Some amalgamated forms, which are the result of strong assimilation, became cliches in contemporary prose dialogue: “gimme” (give me), “lemme” (let me), “gonna” (going to), “gotta” (got to), “coupla” (couple of), “mighta” (might have), “willya” (will you), etc. Graphical changes may reflect not only the peculiarities of, pronunciation, but are also used to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus foregrounding the stressed words. To such purely graphical means, not involving the violations, we should refer all changes of the type (italics, capitalization), spacing of graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication) and of lines. According to the frequency of usage, variability of functions, the first place among graphical means of foregrounding is occupied by italics. Besides italicizing words, to add to their logical or emotive significance, separate syllables and morphemes may also be emphasized by italics (which is highly characteristic of D. Salinger or T. Capote). Intensity of speech (often in commands) is transmitted through the multiplication of a grapheme or capitalization of the word.

7. Specify syntactic stylistic devices.

SD based on the reduction of sentence model:

ellipsis – deliberate omission of at least 1 member. May be unofficial, dynamic, informative

1-member sentences – are those which have no separate subject and predicate but only one main part. This main part may be expressed by a noun (so-called nominal sentences) or an infinitive (infinitive sentences). e.g. To be alive! To have youth and the world before one!

Apokoinu – the omission of the pronominal connective, that creates a blend of the main and subordinate clauses, so that the object of the one is the subject of the second: Thee was a door led in the kitchen

Aposiopesis – interrupting of speech, no finishing of the sentence, imitating spontaneous oral conversation. Mostly used in dialogues. To mark this dots or dashes are used.

Asyndeton

Repetition – is a SD based on the recurrence of the same word, phrase. According to the place: anaphora (a…,a…), epiphora (…a,…a), framing (a…a), catch repetition (…a,a…), chain repetition (a…b,b…c,c…), ordinary (no special place), successive (a strain of closely following words …a,a,a….), morphological (of morphemes).

Enumeration

Tautology

Polysyndeton

Based on expansion of syntactical model:

Parallel constructions – reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences. Partial is the repetition of some parts.

Complete: maintains the principle of identical structure throughout the corresponding

Chiasmus – reversed parallelism. First part is direct word order, second - indirect.

Antithesis – 2 parts must be semantically opposite to each other

Climax (gradation) – when number of ideas is arranged in such a way that each succeeding idea rises above the preceding one in impressiveness or force. A gradual increase in significance may be in 3 ways: logical, emotional, quantitative.

Anticlimax – ideas are arranged in ascending order of significance but the final one is trifling. Here the emotional and logical importance is broken.

Suspense – a deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence.

Rhetorical question – peculiar interrogative which semantically remains a statement. It successfully emphasizes the author’s ideas.

Inversion – complete and partial; grammatical and stylistic

Detachment – SD based on he singling out the secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation.. This member acquire a certain semantic and gram. independence

Parenthesis – no question can be put to it.

8. Dwell on modern models of communication

Information source =M=> Transmitter =Signal=> Noise Source =Received Sign.=> Receiver =M=> Detination

An information source.

The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the destination.

A transmitter. The first, the mouth (sound) and body (gesture), create and modulate a signal. The second layer, which might also be described as a channel, is built of the air (sound) and light (gesture) that enable the transmission of those signals from one person to another.

The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio waves, or words and pictures in a book.

A carrier or channel. The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, and postal systems.

Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried.

A receiver. In face to face communication a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture). In television, several layers of receiver, including an antenna and a television set.

A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.

Gatekeeper’s model: Speaker => Gatekeeper => Audience

Important role of intermediate. It happens in mass/group C. Gatekeeper decides what M context other see, change or prevent from receiving.

9. Speak on the theory of speech acts.

According to Searle to understand language one must understand the speaker’s intention. Since language is an intentional behavior it should be treated like a form of action. Searle refers to statement like speech acts. The Speech act is a basic unit of language used to express meaning that is an utterance that expresses our intention. Normally a speech act is a sentence but it can also be a word or a phrase. To understand the speaker’s intention we must capture the meaning of the statement. There are 4 types of speech acts:

Utterance acts

Prepositional acts

Elocutionary acts (promises, questions, or commands)

Perlocutionary acts is the behavioral response from the listener

Speech act theory has contributed to the rules of communication because it provides a basis for examining what happens when speaker’s use different communication and behavioral rules

lO.Dwell on communication process and its elements.

C. is a process by which we assign and convey meaning in order to create share understanding. Various elements work together to achieve a desired outcome as communication takes place. The basic components or parts of the communication system are: the communicators (sender and receiver), message channel, feedback, noise, situation, and the interdependence of all the elements in the process.  By that they are interrelated and work systematically.

SOURCE

The source of the communication transaction is the originator of the message. Also known as the sender of information, the source initiates the communication process. In speech communication, we can identify the source to be the speaker, the one delivering the message. In daily life situations we are all sources of information as we relate to others and speak our ideas to them. We are both a source of message, consciously and unconsciously.

MESSAGE

In the simplest sense, a message may be thought of as an idea, concept, emotion, desire, or feeling that a person desires to share with another human being. A message may be in verbal or non-verbal codes. The purpose of a message is to evoke meaning in another person. Some messages are intentional some are not.

CHANNEL

A channel is the means by which a message moves from a person to another. The channel is the medium or vehicle by which we are able to transmit the message to the recipient. The means we use to communicate is the channel. The country’s president to deliver his message to his fellowmen may speak face to face with an audience, via the broadcast media or via print. Language is the basic medium of communication available to man.

RECEIVER

The receiver gets the message channeled by the source of information. In a one way communication process, he is in the other end. But in a dynamic communication process the receiver may start to share his ideas and hence become also a source of information for the originator of the message.  Listeners and audience are receivers of information. In a classroom situation, the students spend a lot of time as receivers of information.

EFFECT

Feedback is that integral part of the human communication process that allows the speaker to monitor the process and to evaluate the success of an attempt to get the desired response from the receiver. Also called “return signals,” it has a regulatory effect upon the speaker since the speaker must adjust to the feedback responses in order to be successful. In a public communication situation, the response of acceptance of the audience with their applause may be considered a feedback.

NOISE Noise may occur anywhere along the communication line, and it may be physical, physiological, or psychological in nature. Noise is any interference in the communication process. Annoying vocal habits of the speaker may interfere in the transmission of his verbal signals. Noise as a barrier may originate from the source or the receiver, from the channel used in sending the message, or outside of the source and receiver’s control. The poor listening of the audience and their unnecessary actions may also interfere in the communication process.

CONTEXT Communication does not take place in a vacuum. Between communicators, the process takes place in a particular communication situation where the identifiable elements of the process work in a dynamic interrelation. This situation is referred to as the context - the when and where of a communication event.  Communication contexts vary depending on the need, purpose, number of communicators and the ways exchange is taking place. Communication can be intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organizational, cultural, public or mediated.

Knowing the elements of communication leads to a more meaningful understanding of the processes that make it work. We communicate and we know it is important for us. To communicate effectively, we need to have an understanding of how these elements work together in a process.

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11 .Elucidate peculiarities of cross-cultural communication.

The key to effective cross-cultural communication is KNOWLEDGE. First, it is essential that people understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication, and make a conscious effort to overcome these problems. Second, it is important to assume that one’s efforts will not always be successful, and adjust one’s behavior appropriately.

For example, one should always assume that there is a significant possibility that cultural differences are causing communication problems, and be willing to be patient and forgiving, rather than hostile and aggressive, if problems develop. One should respond slowly and carefully in cross-cultural exchanges, not jumping to the conclusion that you know what is being thought and said.

William Ury’s suggestion for heated conflicts is to stop, listen, and think, or as he puts it "go to the balcony" when the situation gets tense. By this he means withdraw from the situation, step back, and reflect on what is going on before you act. This helps in cross cultural communication as well. When things seem to be going badly, STOP OR SLOW DOWN AND THINK. What could be going on here? Is it possible I misinterpreted what they said, or they misinterpreted me? Often misinterpretation is the source of the problem.

ACTIVE LISTENING can sometimes be used to check this out–by repeating what one thinks he or she heard, one can confirm that one understands the communication accurately. If words are used differently between languages or cultural groups, however, even active listening can overlook misunderstandings.

Often INTERMEDIARIES WHO ARE FAMILIAR WITH BOTH CULTURES can be helpful in cross-cultural communication situations. They can translate both the substance and the manner of what is said. For instance, they can tone down strong statements that would be considered appropriate in one culture but not in another, before they are given to people from a culture that does not talk together in such a strong way. They can also adjust the timing of what is said and done. Some cultures move quickly to the point; others talk about other things long enough to establish rapport or a relationship with the other person. If discussion on the primary topic begins too soon, the group that needs a "warm up" first will feel uncomfortable. A mediator or intermediary who understands this can explain the problem, and make appropriate procedural adjustments.

Yet sometimes intermediaries can make communication even more difficult. If a mediator is the same culture or nationality as one of the disputants, but not the other, this gives the appearance of bias, even when none exists. Even when bias is not intended, it is common for mediators to be more supportive or more understanding of the person who is of his or her own culture, simply because they understand them better. Yet when the mediator is of a third cultural group, the potential for cross-cultural misunderstandings increases further. In this case engaging in extra discussions about the process and the manner of carrying out the discussions is appropriate, as is extra time for confirming and re-confirming understandings at every step in the dialogue or negotiating process.

l2.Speak on statics and dynamics in language history.

The historical development of language cannot be regarded as permanent instability. Many features of the language remain static in diachrony. They don’t change through time. In the first place they are some permanent Universal properties of all languages, such as: division of sounds into vowels and consonants; distinction and the main parts of speech and parts of the sentences, in a diction English has some parts of English vocabulary preserved through ages such as: most of pronouns, many form – words and words indicating the basic concepts of life. Many ways of word formation had remained historically stable. Some grammatical categories, for example: number in nouns degrees of comparison in adjectives have a little change, while other categories such as: case or gander have undergone great change. The proportion of stable and changeable features varies at different historical periods and at different historical levels, but we can’t find statics and dynamics both synchronic and diachronic which is linguistic change needs special consideration.

l3.Describe English morphology in dynamics (OE, ME, ENew English).

Morphology is the subdivision of grammar that deals with the internal structure of words. Many words can be subdivided into smaller meaningful units called morphemes.

The morphology of Old English is quite different from that of Modern English, predominantly by being much more highly inflected. As an old Germanic language, Old English's morphological system is similar to that of the hypothetical Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections theorized to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including characteristically Germanic constructions such as umlaut.

Verbs in Old English are divided into strong or weak verbs. Strong verbs indicate tense by a change in the quality of a vowel, while weak verbs indicate tense by the addition of an ending.

Old English nouns were declined – that is, the ending of the noun changed to reflect its function in the sentence. There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental.

Most pronouns are declined by number, case and gender; in the plural form most pronouns have only one form for all genders. Additionally, Old English pronouns reserve the dual form Middle English Morphology

loss of inflections

loss of grammatical gender

two noun cases: possessive and non-possessive

all adjective inflections lost, loss of weak/strong distinction

verbs: personal endings reduced, mood distinctions blurred

dual/plural distinction lost

change from synthetic to analytic language; reasons: interaction of different inflectional systems in English, French, and Scandinavian; reduction of unstressed final vowels; relative rigidity of word order; increasing use of prepositions and particles changes more visible in North of England.

l4.Describe Old English vocabulary in dynamics (Borrowings).

Modern estimates of the total OE vocabulary range from about 30.000-100.000 words. The OE vocab. was almost purely Germanic; except for a small number of borrowings, it consisted of native words, inherited from Proto-Germanic or formed from native roots and affixes.

Native words can be subdivided into some etymological layers coming from different historical periods: 3 main layers in the native words: 1) common Indo-European words. They constitute the oldest part of the OE vocab. Among these words: natural phenomena, plants, animals, agricultural terms, verbs denoting men’s activities, names of parts of the human body, terms of kinship, etc.; this layer includes personal and demonstrative pronouns and most numerals.

Verbs belonging to this layer denote the basic activities of man; adjectives indicate the most essential qualities.

foeder – Vater; bropor – Bruder; modor – Mutter; dohtor – Tochter; sunu – Sohn;

mona – Mond; niht – Nacht; woeter – Wasser; fyr – Feuer;

common Germanic words; The common Germanic layer includes words which are shared by most Germanic languages. This layer is certainly smaller than the layer of common IE words. Semantically these words are connected with nature, with the sea and everyday life.

screap – sheep; macian – make; hus – house; drincan – drink; land – land; safe – sea; wisdom – wisdom;

specifically OE words. Specifically OE, that is words which do not occur in other Germanic or non-Germanic languages. These words are few: OE clipian - call, OE brid – bird, wifman – woman and several others.

OE borrowings come from two sources: Celtic and Latin.There are very few Celtic loan-words in the OE vocabulary. Borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in place-names. The OE kingdoms Kent, Deira and Bernicia derive their names from the names of Celtic tribes. The name of York, the Downs and perhaps London have been traced to Celtic sources. Various Celtic designations of river and water were understood by the Germanic invaders as proper names: Ouse, Esk, Exe, Avon; Thames, Stour, Dover also come from Celtic. Many place-names with Celtic elements are hybrids; the Celtic component, combined with a Latin or a Germanic component, makes a compound place-name, e.g.: Celtic plus Latin: Man-chester, Win-chester, Lan-caster; Celtic plus Germanic: York-shire, Corn-wall, Devon-shire, Canter-bury.

Latin influence on the OE vocabulary.

Early OE borrowings from Latin belong to war, trade, agriculture, building and home life. Among the Latin loan-words adopted in Britain were some place-names made of Latin and Germanic components, e.g. Portsmouth, Greenport, Greenwich.

belt - belt; butere - butter; camp - field, battle; candel - candle; catt - cat; ceaster - city; cetel - kettle; cupp - cup; cycene - kitchen; cyse - cheese;

Words pertaining to religion; words connected with learning.

orgel – organ; papa – pope; regol – religious rule;