7. Дәріссабақтар тезистерi

LECTURE I

A BRIEF REVIEW ON FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

Plan

1. The variety of methods at different periods

2. Teachers and ways of teaching

3. Approach and method

4. A survey of approaches and methods

5. The grammar-translation method

A student who starts studying Methods will be puzzled by the variety of "methods" he may come across in books and journals and, of course, there are good grounds for this. At different periods, depending on the aims of teaching and learning a foreign language, new methods sprang up. In each case the method received a certain name; sometimes its name denoted logical categories, for example: the synthetic method (synthesis), the analytic method (analysis), the deductive method (deduction), the inductive method (induction), ' sometimes the method was named after the aspect of the language upon which attention was focused as in the cases of the grammar method, the lexical method, the phonetic method. A third set of methods received their names from the skill which was the main object of teaching. Among these are the translation method (translation), the oral method (oral language). Sometimes the method got its name from the psychology of language learning: in this category the following names occur: the intuitive method, the conscious method, the direct method. Finally, the method was sometimes named after its inventor. Thus we find: the Amos Comenius method, the Jacotot method, the Gouin method, the Berlitz method, the Palmer (West, Fries) method.

In some cases the methods bear coupled names: they represent two sides of teaching, for example, the leading aspect of the language and the skill the pupils acquire (the grammar-translation method), or the name of the author and the language activity which is the main aim in teaching - "Fries oral method", "the method of teaching reading by West". We may find even such names as "hear­say-see-say-read-write method" and others.

It would be impracticable in a short chapter such as this one to give a classification of methods. All that one can hope to do is to select for comment those methods which have had a long history and have intlLienced the contemporary methods of foreign language teaching, and live on in them. This brief review will deal with:

(1) the grammar-translation method, the oldest method of teaching foreign languages which had its origin in Latin schools;

(2) the direct method which began to be widely used in schools in the I 870's;

(3) contemporary methods.

THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

The grammar-translation method was widely used in teaching the classics, namely Latin, and it was transferred to the teaching of modern languages when they, were introduced into schools, first as an optional and then as a compulsory subject. In teaching a foreign language by means .of the grammar-translation method attention was paid to the assimilation of grammar rules of the foreign language that pupils studied. The vocabulary was "tuned up" to grammar. Translation was extensively utilized both as a means of explanation of new words, grammar forms, and structures, and as a means of mastering the foreign language, all exercises for assimilating the language material being limited to translation from the mother tongue into the foreign language and from the foreign language into the mother tongue.

The distinguishing features of the grammar-translation method are (.1) insistence upon grammatical analyses and (2) the assumption that grammatical categories can be defined in general terms with reference to meaning, the grammatical categories being the common denominator of all languages. According to the grammar-translation method the best way to say a sentence in a foreign language is to start with a sentence in the mother tongue, analyze it grammatically into such components as subject, i. e., one who performs the action, predicate, that which denotes the action, object, that which receives the action, etc. If necessary pupils go onwith the analyses, for example, they name tense, mood, etc. Then the pupil is told to find the corresponding forms in the foreign language. Sounds, morphemes, words are always considered peculiar to one language alone, but the syntax, the patterns of language are thought of as universals that will allow the pupil to pass from one lan­guage to another. It is well known that many patterns of a foreign language do not conform to those of the native language, and these contrasting patterns have to be learned as "exceptions", i. e., exceptions of the one language from the stand point of the other language.

The grammar-translation method in its orthodox form was practised in schools in the 18th and 19th centuries. The development of pedagogics, psychology and linguistics brought changes in the grammar-translation method. It was greatly modified at the end of the 19th century and in the 20th century, and, first of all, these modifications dealt with the approach to the relationship of "two grammars". Instead of forcing the target language into the mold of the learner's native language, the "grammars" are compared with the result of better comprehension and retention in all points of difference and interference.

The grammar-translation method is often mentioned even nowadays when one wants to emphasize a traditional approach to foreign language teaching. The textbook is the essential teaching aid. The assumption is that proficiency in the language can be acquired by learning a s*et of grammatical rules, to which the language is supposed to conform, and that by mechanically applying these rules speed and fluency will grow with the use of the language. Primary secondary attention to hearing and speaking. Language performance in the classroom takes the form of reading, translating, and the working out of various exercises which require the application of grammar rules to selected data.

Questions

l.What is the content of teaching? Do authors whose works you have read interpret it adequately? Give examples.

2.Compare several approaches to the fundamental principles foreign language teaching should be based upon and name the specific principles which , you think, must be observed in teaching this subject in schools?

3.Mention the main do's and don'ts of the grammar-translation method. 4.Principles of this method can be applied nowadays. Give reasons to support your statement.

Recommended Literature:

Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Lowes, R. and Target, F. 1998. Helping Students to Learn.

London: Richmond.

Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Willis, D. and J. Willis (eds.). 1996. Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann.

LECTURE 2, 3

THE DIRECT METHOD Plan

1. Situational Language Teaching

2. H.Palmer and M.West, prominent English methodolegists

3. Contemporary method

The direct objectives arc mastery of the graphic skills, І. e., reading and writing, with method appeared as a reaction against the grammar-translation method. The prerequisites that brought about the appearance of new method are as follows. The rapid development of various branches of industry and the tremendous development of international trade and colonial expansion required plenty of officials who had a practical mastery of the language, people who could speak and write a foreign language and be able to communicate with foreigners. Therefore practical mastery of a foreign language becomes the main purpose of teaching this .subject at school. The rapid development of pedagogics, psychology, namely, apperceptive psychology, and linguistics promoted the appearance of new methods.

The characteristic features of the direct method are as follows: (1) the practical direction in the teaching of foreign languages which is understood as teaching language skills and speaking in particular, therefore spoken language becomes the basis of teaching;

(2) the ignoring of the existence of the mother tongue as it is assumed that learning the mother tongue and learning a foreign language are similar processes, merely undertaken at different ages;

(3) restricted application or very often complete elimination of translation as a means of teaching a language which plays a leading part in the grammar-translation method; instead of translation, visual aids and various oral and writ

ten exercises are recommended on a large scale;

(4) the inductive approach to teaching grammar, i.e., the learner may discover the rules of grammar for himself after he has become acquainted with many examples (in the grammar-translation method the rule is first stated, and then sentences embodying the rule are studied; later therule is put into practice by writing new sentences, generally by translating sentences from the mother tongue into the foreign language);

(5) great care in teaching pronunciation throughout the course, and especially the first weeks and months; correct pronunciation must be constantly practised since comprehension and speaking is possible if the learner has adequate pronunciation in the target language;

(6) great attention to the subjects of the texts, especially a topical arrangement of the material with the purpose of ensuring speech development.

The method is called direct because in teaching a foreign language an attempt is made to establish a direct connection between a foreign word and the thing or notion it denotes without the aid of the native language.

At the end of the 19th and in the beginning of the 20th century there appeared several varieties of the direct method which differed only in some details. The most orthodox advocates of the direct method were F. Gouin, M. Berlitz, M. Walter, B. Eggert.

The teachers who accepted the method, involve the pupil from the first step of learning a new language in conversation and supply meaning by referring directly to objects and picture charts; they act out the meaning of sentences in order to make themselves understood.

The direct method found ready supporters. It stimulated enormously the pupil's curiosity to learn and make progress. But there were too many difficulties in the use of the method, the main of them being the following:

1. No scientific principles were applied to selection of study material and vocabulary in particular. The only principle applied was the topical one, i. e., the material was arranged in topics. As a result of such arrangement of vocabulary, the pupil had to assimilate a great number of words.For example, in textbooks compiled according to F. Gouin system the vocabulary listed 8 000 words.

2. School conditions did not favour the development of pupils' speech habits (too few periods a week, overcrowded classes, lack of visual materials, etc.),

3. Jn the hands of inexperienced and ill-equipped teachers the direct method did not work and the teachers had to return to the old grammar-translation method.

However during the period between the two wars it became possible to revive the main principles of the direct method: (a) by careful experimentation; (b) by taking note of the new developments in the field of linguistics (Ferdinand de Saus-sure)² and psychology (Thorndike) ; (c) by insisting that clear statements be made as to the aims and objectives of teaching. This was done by H.Palmer and M.West, prominent English method olo gists. Questions:

1. Recall the distinguishing features of the method. Compare the grammar-translation with the direct method and state the difference.

2. Express your own opinion on the direct method.

Recommended Literature:

Dickinson, L. 1987. Self-instruction in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, G. and B. Sinclair. 1989. Learning to Learn English. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lowes, R. and Target, F. 1998. Helping Students to Learn. London: Richmond.

Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Willis, D. and J. Willis (eds.). 1996. Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford:

LECTURE 4,5

P A LME R'S AND WEST'S METHODS

Plan

1. H.Palmer is the prominent advocate of the direct method

2. H. Palmer compiles a series of study guides for teaching oral language

3. Main points in West's method

The main points in Palme r's method are:

1. In learning a foreign language the pupil must tread the path he has followed in acquiring the mother tongue, i. e., starting with oral language.

2. The teaching of a foreign language must be based upon carefully selected material. H.Palmer was one of the first methodologists who tried to work out the principles of vocabulary selection on a scientific basis. A special Research Institute was established in Tokyo and H.Palmer headed this Institute. The results of the work was a 3 000 word minimum vocabulary list.

3. Great attention should be given to the rationalization of study material to make the assimilation of a foreign language easier.

H. Palmer compiles a series of study guides for teaching oral language:

English Through Actions — where a system of exercise drills based upon the concrete showing of things and actions is given.

100 Substitution Tables - - in which typical English sentences (sentence patterns) are arranged in tables for pupils to make up their own sentences, following the pattern. Since Substitution Tables is one of the innovations introduced by H. Palmer and they are widely used in contemporary methods, it is relevant to mention what such tables allow the learner to do while using them:

1. To present the most frequently used English words and word groups in such a manner as to form the greatest number of useful sentences of general application.

2. To serve as practical ear-training exercises, by the use of which the student will come to understand the most rapid speech.

3. To serve as a series of pronunciation exercises, by the use of which the student will acquire fluency and rapidity of expression with the appropriate stress and intonation.

4. To provide a simple context for each word in such a way as to encourage the student to learn words not as isolated elements but as component parts of sentences.

To serve as a simple scheme for analysis in which the function of the various parts of speech and the nature of group-words are clearly shown.

6. To offer an extensive choice of model sentences to be memorized providing a simple means for converting each memorized sentence into a vast number of others.

7. To enable the teacher to react against five of the ten vicious evils, to which most of all language students are subject, namely:

(a) literal translation from the mother tongue,

(b) artificial separation of words,

(c) non-recognition of group-words,

(d) preference for strong forms,

(e) over-reliance on visual memory.

8. To form the basis of a series of progressive exercises in the grammar inflexions and semantics of spoken English.

9. To serve as vocabulary and phrase-book, to be used with a key in the mother tongue for those who find it necessary or more convenient to study without a teacher. Here is an example from the tables:

I You We They

saw put left found

two three . a few some

books letters kevs good ones

here there on the ta­ble in this box

yesterday last on Sunday this morning

This table will yield 4 096 perfectly rational sentences.

Systematic Exercises in English Pronunciation. In this book a graded system of exercises in pronunciation is presented.

Standard English Reader contains easy material which¹ gradually becomes more complicated and interesting to read. The material is based on selected vocabulary.

English Through Questions and Answers is attached to these readers. The books present a -gradual transition from simple to complex questions on every text. Later on the books Graded Exercises in English Composition are added. These books contain various grammar and vocabulary exercises on each text of the Standard Readers.

Teaching is a long chain of stimuli applied by the teacher and a response chain of students' reactions. In learning a foreign language the students pass through the following stages.

1, Receptive work when the students only assimilate the teacher's speech:

(a) Subconscious comprehension. The teacher speaks. The

students listen to his speech. There is no reaction on the part of the learners. They are plunged into a sea of foreign language sounds. For example, the teacher speaks pointing to objects and moving about the classroom.

This is a book and that is a box. — Look at the book. Look at tt box. — I am going to put the book on the table and the box on t chair. — Where's the book now? — It's on the table. -box? — It's on the chair. Is the book on the table? -- Yes, it is the door.

Conscious comprehension. The teacher speaks; the pusiven a definite assignment, for example, "Pay auentionto intonation".

(c) Exercises in fulfilment of instructions. The teacher orders a pupil to do something. The pupil does it silently. In this way he shows that he has understood the teacher's order or request in the English language.

Get up. Sit down. Gel up. Come here. Go there. — over there. — to the door. — to the window. — to the blackboard. — to the table. Go back to your place. Sit down.

At first the teacher accompanies his verbal command by gestures. Then he stops the gestures so that the pupil reacts to the verbal signals without visual props.

(d) "Yes" and "No" work. The teacher asks a question, the students answer "yes", or "no". In this way the students' comprehension is checked.

In all the exercises mentioned above comprehension is ensured by vivid and visual presentation of the material by the teacher, by his demonstration where necessary of the actions required, and by arranging the pupil's activity in using material.

2.Receptive-imitative work. The teacher speaks. I he students repeat certain speech units after him (Parrot work, as II.Palmer calls it). These may be:

(a) exercises in repetition of separate sounds and sound combinations;

(b) exercises in repetition of words and sentences;

(c) simple substitution tables. The teacher does his best to create conditions in which the students will not make mistakes in their speech.

3.C onventional conversation. The students learn how to ask and answer questions of the following three types: general, alternative and special. For better assimilation of the material,

teaching is conducted in consecutive order, i.e., they are taueht h to ask questions of one type at a time. Finally, questions are г random.

piece

For example: What can I do if I have a pen? knife? chalk? etc.

4.Normal conversation. The teacher and th pupils carry on a conversation in the foreign language.

Palmer distinguishes four stages in teaching and learnine foreign language: elementary, intermediate, advanced, and subsequent lif* as H. Palmer says: "Learning a language has a beginning, but no end "' H.Palmer gives much attention to methods of teaching in the first tw stages. He says: "Take care of the initial stage, and the rest will take care of them selves."

Since, in his opinion, it is necessary to begin by teaching oral language, he works out most carefully the methods and techniques of teaching this aspect of speech activity.

In contrast to H. Palmer, M.West proposes to begin by teaching to read. In support of such a sequence in foreign language teaching: from reading — reception, to speaking — reproduction, M. West advances the following arguments:

l.In a country where the child must be bilingual and be brought into easy contact with world culture it is necessary to begin by teaching to read. The essential need of the average bilingual child of a minor language is simply that of reading ability in one of the major languages to supply the informational and scientific deficiency of his national lit­erature.

2. Reading is the easiest aspect of the language to acquire, for reading involves no active use of grammar and idioms and the memory of the vocabulary is merely recognition. M. West says - it is necessary to begin with reading because "We need not begin by teaching the child to speak for that would be to teach something easy by means of something more difficult."

3. In teaching reading it is easier to develop a sense of the language and a feeling of what is idiomatic which would very greatly diminish the child's liability to errors and very greatly accelerate his progress.

learning reading the child will sooner feel his progress in knowledge and enjoy it. Besides, he can improve his Se independently without the teacher's aid.

teaching reading the teacher's qualifications, and his f the language is of no great importance (as the reading book the child while the teacher is a mere master of ceremonies), nor is of the class of significance, as all the pupils can read ^; itaneously. M. West compiled a series of teaching material forming reading: ten readers, supplementary readers, exercise books, and blank companions.

He has developed methods of teaching oral language and compiled special teaching material for the purpose. These are: Learn to Speak by Sneaking, Improve Your English, Easy English Dialogues, Book One and 'nook Two- His book Teaching English in Difficult Circumstances was 1,-anslalcd into Russian.³

We greatly appreciate H. Palmer and M. West for their contribution to Methods. These English methodologists have enriched the technology of foreign language teaching:

1. They have raised the problem of careful selection of language material, worked out criteria of selection, and selected the material.

2. They have raised the problem of the necessity for rationalizing teaching materials and worked out systems of foreign language teaching: H. Palmer -speaking, M. West -both reading and speaking.

3. They have compiled series of guide books: H. Palmer for teaching speaking; M. West for teaching reading and speaking.

4. They have introduced a lot of new and effective exercises: H. Palmer for the development of speaking skills, M. West for the development of reading skills and comprehension of a foreign text as well as for the development of speaking.

Questions:

I. Recall the distinguishing features of the Palmer's method. Compare the H. Palmer's method with M. West's . Express your own opinion on these methods. Recommended Literature:

Dickinson, L. 1987. Self-instruction in Language Learning Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, G. and B. Sinclair. 1989. Learning to Learn English. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lowes, R. and Target, F. 1998. Helping Students to Learn. London: Richmond.

Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers, 1986, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Willis, D. and J. Willis (eds.). 1996. Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinetnann.

LECTURE 6,7

CONTEMPORARY METHODS Plan

1. Main features of the contemporary methods

2. Audio - lingual methods

3. Fries' American English Series

All the points mentioned above are undergoing further development in contemporary Methods abroad.

There are many methods of language teaching and a considerable amount of controversy as to the best way of foreign languages teaching abroad at present. However it is possible to group them into (1) traditional methods which have their origin in the grammar-translation method, and (2) audio-lingual methods which are considered to be a further development of the direct method line.

The traditional approach to foreign language teaching is characterized by (1) the use of the native language for explanation, retention and checking; (2) the deductive explanation of grammar and the use of grammar exercises; (3) the development of all the language skills, І. e., hearing, speaking, reading, and writing from the beginning of the course. This approach is called traditional because it has been prevalent in schools for a long time. The traditional methods,

although they are adopting some kinds- of innovation in teaching techniques and teaching materials, still retain those distinguishing characteristics which were mentioned above. Since these methods are often contrasted with audio-lingual methods, and the latter are considered to be contemporary ones, we shall dwell upon the audio-lingual methods more thoroughly.

The main features of the contemporary methods are: 1. The development of audio-lingual skill first, i. e., listening comprehension and speaking, that is why the methods are called audio-lingual. The justification of the priority of spoken language in foreign language learning is found in the observation that a language is first of all a system of sounds used for social communication; writing is a secondary derivative system people use for the recording of spoken language. Children normally learn spoken language before they learn written language. Even if the learner's aim is only to read or write the language he can attain a surer mastery of the foreign language if he passes through a substantial stage of work with the spoken language. It is thought that reading and writing might, at least in the beginning, interfere with the development of audio-lingual skills, and that especially the use of writing may lead to spelling pronunciation. The amount of delay between presentation of the spoken and the written material may vary from a short time to a very long time which depends on the aim of teaching,- the student's age, the organization of the course, the conditions of instruction, etc.

2, Great care in teaching speaking" so that the learner could use the spoken forms as accurately as possible, that is, with native-like sentence patterns and pronunciation. For this purpose the student should have some adequate model of speech - preferably in the person of a native or near-native speaker of the language, or in the form of a faithfully- recorded voice of such a speaker. This is now becoming possible _ because of modern teaching equipment such as radio, television, language laboratories, and teaching machines. The rejection of translation as the main tool of instruction. All the exercises performed by the student are usually within the target language. The use of the student's native language is minimized. It jc admitted to supply meaning to the student, although, even in this case the target language supported by whatever props, pictorial materials or pantomimic gestures, is preferred.

4. Teaching grammar through pattern practice. The grammaticalexercises usually take the form of drills in which the student isasked to substitute words for other words, or to make changes j_n

sentences, e. g., from singular to plural, from past to present, fromactive to passive, following the model. Grammatical descriptions ofpatterns are taught only after the patterns are well on the way tobeing mastered at a purely oral level, and then only when it is felt thatsuch descriptions will hasten the learning process or help ensureretention. Pattern practice with varying elements provides drill inthe conscious application of structural elements and leads the student

to the "automatic" use of the structural patterns. Such an approach toteaching grammar is justified on the basis of theories andobservations as to how children learn their mother tongue, and howthey use well-practised patterns of their native language.

5. Extensive use of "real-life" communication situations for stimulating the student's language activity. This is done to involve the student in the act of communication in the target language, and in this way to arouse his interest in language learning and increase his motivation. Modern teaching aids and teaching materials make such situations accessible, e. g., a filmstrip with foreign language sound track can represent realistic situations and context and "engage" the student in conversations.

6. The development of reading and writing first using the linguistic material the student has learned orally, and then the material characteristic of written language with the aim of getting information (reading) and sending information (writing).

These features of contemporary methods may be illustrated by Voix et images de France "*' and Fries' American English Series.

Voix et images de France is a French course which has been worked out by the Research Centre in Saint Cloud in France. The method is known as the Saint Cloud audio-visual method. The situations and speech patterns have been carefully selected. All these are reproduced by native speakers.

Students "receive" the material through audio and visual perception, i.e., they see a picture (a series of pictures) on a screen or in the book and listen to the conversation from a tape-recorder. They assimilate the material by memorizing the language and the situations in which this material can be used. The work takes the student through the following stages: (1) r e c e p t i v e stage : the student listens to the conversation 2—3 times and tries to grasp it; (2) reproductive stage: the student reproduces the phrases and sentences said by the speakers. Typically the material memorized consists of dialogues that the student can act out. The whole course includes a lot of conversations within a set of everyday situations. Students are taught reading and writing after they have acquired habits and skills in hearing and speaking. The method is popular with foreigners who come to France. The course has been created for adult learners. It is an intensive course, i.e._; students learn a foreign language for 3—6 months 20—25 hours a week, therefore it cannot be utilized in schools.

Fries' American English Series is a course of English as a foreign language. The material, carefully selected for easy assimilation, is distributed throughout the six textbooks. Each book is supplied with a guide book for teachers. There are many interesting exercises of a creative character which contrast favourably with H. Palmer's exercises. Palmer's exercises are known to be mechanical and they require "parrot work" on the part of the learner. Here are some of the exercises from Book One and Book Two which pupils can do after they have learned the

material orally.

• Draw a picture of an animal. Colour it and write two statements about it.

• Write statements. Tell five things you do everyday, and five things you did yesterday.

• Make statements about the objects that your teacher shows you.

Plan a lunch for one day of the week Write a paragraph on the blackboard about one of the pupils in your class. Write two paragraphs about yourself.

• Write a paragraph about one of these pictures

(3 pictures are displayed).

Play a guessing game with your teacher.

1. Write a sentence about five people you know.

2. Write as many sentences as you can about one of the rooms З.ТеІІ the class what you, some members of your family or a friend did yesterday morning, yesterday afternoon and last night.

4.Guess what pupils in your class were doing at a certain time.

Charles Fries called his method "the oral approach" because pupils get acquainted with language material "through the ear".

He wrote, "... no matter if the final desire is only to read the foreign language, the mastery of the fundamentals of the language - the structure and the sound system with a limited vocabulary - must be through speech. Speech is the language. The written record is but a secondary representation of the language." In the oral approach reading is deliberately postponed until the structure of the new language is firmly grasped. The language of the pupil is avoided as much as possible; it is admitted when necessary, to make sure mat explanations are thoroughly understood. Fries emphasizes that "in teaching by 'the oral approach' there should be widely used every means which can be made to contribute to learning a language: the living voice, mechanical records, sound films, manuals, textbooks, written notes, written exercises." However "the oral approach" centres attention upon learning a language as a set of symbols to be spoken and understood when heard, i.e., upon oral language.

In conclusion, it should be said that between the grammar-translation method however modified and the direct method in various modifications there have been mixed or in-between methods. The advocates of the latter methods try to avoid the extremes of the former. "Language Learning" by Peter Hagboldt is an example of such a method.

It is not our purpose here to analyze teaching methods and weigh their relative merits since this may be a subject for special papers and investigations. Besides there is a special book in which all these methods are thoroughly discussed.

We have only introduced teaching methods to those who are going to become teachers of foreign languages, or already teach them in schools, so that they might learn their main characteristics and could read articles and books on foreign language teaching in the English language.

The chief tendency in the development of Methods abroad may be characterized by a scientific approach to the teaching of foreign languages, extensive use of linguistic science, psychology, psycholinguistics, and experimenting. The progress made in the sphere of phonetics, vocabulary, and grammar study has shed fresh light on the content of teaching, І. e., on what to teach, what linguistic material should be used for developing audio-lingual skills and written language (reading and writing). Different approaches are followed in the selection of linguistic material for teaching speaking and reading; for the former, recorded speech should be analysed with the aim of selecting those language units which are characteristic of spoken language and are necessary to cover the most frequently used situations; for the latter, printed texts are analysed and the occurrences of words, phraseological units, and grammatical structures are counted in order to select those which the learner needs to read foreign texts.

The practical application of some theoretical views of American descriptive structural linguists and psychologists, such as the primacy of the spoken over the written language, has led to the oral approach to foreign language teaching; the treatment of language as a complex of habits and skills, as a form of social behaviour, has been realized in teaching a foreign language as behaviour, І. e., a reaction of the organism as a whole to a social environment. The learner should know what a native speaker's response would be in a certain situation.

In his article Learning English as Behaviour M.West gives the following examples of wrong and right responses:

Wrong

What's this? This is a book. Where is the book? The book is on the table. How many books are there on the table? There are three books on the table.

Right

What's this? It's a book. Where is the book? It's on the able (or: On the table.) How many books are there on the table? There are three, (or: Three.)

He says that those who merely learn the language as a form of verbal expression cannot gain an understanding of foreign people. In order to understand the English it is not enough to know what they speak but how they speak, or rather how they converse. In a behavioural method of teaching it is necessary to combine a correct and systematic build-up oflinguistic elements (structures and carefully selected vocabulary) and a vital and behavioural use of the language. This is possible provided real and closc-to-real situations are created. So situational approach in foreign language teaching is essential. "Ideally one needs television or a film so that the pupil may not merely hear how the English language is behaved but see it behaved as well."

The behaviouristic stimulus-response and reinforcement theory in psychology adopted by foreign language teaching has resulted in repetitive drill of certain patterns of language or in pattern practice- for this purpose language laboratories, programmed instruction, and other innovations have been offered. However, this has not brought the results which were promised and expected. Here is what American methodologists write on the point, "The "New Look¹ proposed by theoretical linguists in the 1950's, the audio-lingual method, has not lived up to expectations, the NDEA institutes failed to stimulate major improvements in language learning, the language laboratories have not become efficient replacements for live teachers, and, as a result, a great many students - - and an increasing number of administrators - are actively questioning the relevance of foreign language in modern education. ... the opposition to the school learning e of foreign languages is being generated by the failure to make - language programs a meaningful, satisfactory, and successful learning experience."

In the past few years the stimulus response theory (as applied to education) has begun to be strongly criticized by psychologists and by the teachers and students themselves. As a consequence of this criticism the cognitive code-learning theory has been proposed. According to the cognitive code-theory a language is more than a system of habits which can be formed through repetitive drill. It is a specific system and the learner should know how this system works in actual communication. Cognitive processes imply recognition of form, perception of meaning, relations of univcrsals and particulars, generalization, and analog!zation. Since the cognitive code-learning approach is characterized by the use of exercises designed to teach grammatical understanding of the concepts being introduced; by the deductive explanation of all grammar prior to any practice with the structure; and by the practice of all the language skills from the beginning of the course, "^: it is considered a more modern and sophisticated version of the grammar-translation method.

The results of scientific analysis of the contrasts between the learner's language and the target language are taken into consideration in the arrangement of the material and the pupil's activity for its retention, because the typical learner's difficulties can be identified and predicted in advance on the basis of contrastive analysis in phonology, structure, semantics, and culture.

The development of engineering has made possible the introducing of new teaching aids and teaching materials: television courses, tape lessons audio-visual courses; programmed instruction is being introduced into foreign language teaching. Textbooks have appeared which differ greatly from those used before; each new textbook is only a part of the teaching materials designed for a particular set of pupils.

Considerable attention is given to testing in foreign language teaching, to measuring pupils' aptitudes and achievements in language learning. Various tests have been suggested for measuring pupils' knowledge of vocabulary and structures, their comprehension of oral language and written language. Most of them are very primitive and inadequate. The problem of testing, because of the complexity of the subject, is still far from being solved.

There is a tendency towards more intensive language teaching since the requirement for people who can use a foreign language as a means of communication is increasing from year to year. To prove this we shall quote words which sound like a motto "more people, more often and more speedily". In this connection various intensive courses (in which the total number of hours of instruction is concentrated within a short period of time, for instance, 10, 20 or 30 hours per week instead of four or five) are suggested. The idea of greater intensity of teaching than is usually accepted has been borne out as a result of experimenting at various centres. The Intensive Course is an example. The Intermediate Course, for instance, provides material designed for approximately four weeks of intensive study. It is recommended that each study unit be used for four to six hours of combined classroom and language laboratory work. The course consists of thirty lessons. They are of three types: lessons that introduce new reading and dialogue materials; lessons that provide dialogue practice, as well as intonation, pronunciation, and grammar drill; and two review lessons. All the materials except those marked Classroom Practice and Homework Only are recorded on tape.

In conclusion, we may say that much effort is being ex-pended on the development of more effective methods of foreign language teaching and, although practical results are not yet encouraging, as one can judge from different publications on Methods, one can hope that a scientific approach to foreign language teaching will bring considerable improvement. Questions:

1. Recall the distinguishing features of the audio-lingual method. Compare the direct method with the audio-lingual method . Express your own opinion on these methods. Recommended Literature:

Dickinson, L. 1987. Self-instruction in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, G. and B. Sinclair. 1989. Learning to Learn English. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,

Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching.

LECTURE 8, 9

ALTERNATIVE METHODS

Plan

1. Alternative method: Total Physical Response (TPR), The Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, The Natural Approach The Natural Approach

2. Communicative Language Teaching

Alternative methods here refers to several methods and one approach developed between the mid-1960s and early 1980s that have been quite influential, although they have never been widely used. In some ways they can be seen as products of the search for the "perfect method".

Total Physical Response (TPR). TPR was developed by James Asher in the USA from the mid-1960s. It is suitable for beginners' courses only, and later needs to be supplemented by activities and techniques from other methods. It aims to develop

listening comprehension before production, to associate language with action, and to reduce stress in language learning. In these ways, it tries to replicate typical features of LI acquisition. Most other methods demand instant speaking from the learners rather than providing them with extensive listening practice first. Most other methods also connect language with language (for example, model and repetition, question and answer) rather than with action, and often create a lot of tension in the learners. TPR connects language with action by getting the learners to do what the teacher tells them.

The Silent Way. The Silent Way was developed by Caleb Gattegno in the USA from the early 1970s. H contrasts almost totally with TPK. Instead of giving extensive active listening comprehension practice, the teacher is silent for most of the time, giving only single examples of new sentence structures and then getting different learners to attempt to reproduce the sentence and produce similar ones. The method is based on the hypothesis that discovery and problem-solving produce much better learning than imitation and repetition. Learners must concentrate and usually struggle a bit to benefit from the method. Teachers need special training in the use of Silent Way materials and techniques.

Suggestopedia. Suggestopedia was developed by Georgi Lozanov in Bulgaria from the early 1970s, and then by Jane Bancroft in Canada and others elsewhere. Us main concern is the facilitation of memorization. In foreign language teaching, Suggestopedia is applied largely to the memorization of interesting' texts in the L2. Learners are provided with an LI translation of the texts so that they have a fair understanding of what they are memorizing. These texts are then used as the basis for other language analysis and practice activities. Memory is facilitated by relaxing surroundings (for example, pleasant decor and comfortable furniture), soothing background music, and confident, authoritative reading and behaviour by the teacher. The teacher's reading of the text to be memorized should be matched to the rhythm of the background music.

Community Language Learning

This method was developed by Charles Curran in the USA from the mid-1970s. The teacher is at the learners' service, to help them achieve their own goals. Learning is seen as. personal development, not the achievement of objectives imposed froir outside by the teacher or the institution. The learners sit in a circle with the teacher standing outside it. Any learner can volunteer to ask a question or make a statement (in the LI at beginner level) The teacher repeats this question or statement in the L2 as many times as the learner wishes to hear it. Then the learner says it recording it onto a cassette. Another learner responds to the question or statement (again in the LI at beginner level), listens to the teacher repeating the response in the L2, and records it onto the cassette. In this way, a conversation in the L2 among the learners is siowly built up on the cassette. The teacher then replays the whole recording and the learners listen to their 'conversation'. The teacher selects some sentences from the conversation and writes them on the board for analysis and discussion of the language. A notable feature of this method is that the learners, not the teacher or the institution, create the syllabus according to their own interests and concerns.

The Natural Approach

The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell in the USA from the late 1970s, later in collaboration with Stephen Krashen. Like (he Direct Method, the Natural Approach is organized on the general lines of Approach У above. Languages are seen mainly as a means of communication in specific situations. They are acquired by hearing them used in communication and using them yourself. Formal study of a foreign language is largely a waste of time. You have to use the language in real communication, and go through a slow, subconscious process, making many errors. The Natural Approach works at promoting subconscious acquisition, and relegates conscious learning to a minor role. It begins with TPR activities, providing the learners with a lot of comprehensible listening input related to actions. In later stages, it continues to use activities associated with other approaches and methods, especially the Direct Method, Situational Language Teaching, and Communicative Language Teaching. In this respect it is eclectic. The Natural Approach does not work systematically through a predetermined language syllabus, but progresses by focusing on communication in areas of need and interest to the learners. It emphasizes the importance of reducing stress and anxiety, and promoting the learners' motivation and self-confidence. One reason why these alternative methods are not widely used is that they all require highly-trained teachers with ample time for lesson preparation. Most also require other special conditions, for example, small groups of mature, motivated learners and specific types of classroom. Another reason is that most of them depend on a single, strong theory of learning, and are therefore out of tune with current eclecticism. However, they do suggest considerations, activities, and techniques that can often be usefully incorporated into eclectic teaching, for example:

- More, active listening practice and less teacher-controlled oral repetition.

- More involvement of the learners in discovery and problem-solving

activities, and less passive listening to the teacher's explanations and corrections.

- More consideration of the learners' physical and emotional states.

- More consideration of the learners' real needs and wants, and less obsession with 'getting through' the syllabus.

- More effort to reduce anxiety and increase self-confidence in the learners.

- More attention to the communicative use of language, and less obsession with constant formal accuracy.

Communicative Language Teaching

This approach grew out of new theories of language language learning that developed in the 1960s and in Britain, the USA, and elsewhere, as well as newclassroom procedures. It is probably the approach most used by trained language teachers today. But it is implemented in very different ways by different teachers working in different contexts. It is an approach with wide variations, not a well-defined method. By its very nature it is eclectic.

Questions:

1. Outline the main characteristics of the method used in teaching foreign languages in Soviet schools. Do you believe they are fully justified? Give your reasons.

Recommended Literature:Dickmson-, L. 1987. Self-instruction in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, G. and B. Sinclair. 1989. Learning to Learn English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lowes, R. and Target, F. 1998. Helping Students to Learn. London: Richmond.

Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and

Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.Willis, D. and J. Willis (eds.)- 1996

LECTURE 10,11

SOVIET METHOD OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING Plan

1. Development of foreign language teaching in the USSR

2. A conscious approach to language learning

3. The acquisition of the language through pupils' practice in using it

A scientific approach to foreign language teaching has always been followed in the Soviet Union. Every pupil has to learn a foreign language and acquire habits and skills in using it.

Since then intensive research work has been carried out in this field. As a result our schools have received new courses adjusted to the needs of Soviet schooling; various textbooks and books on the improvement of teaching methods have been

published.

Further development of foreign language teaching has been

encouraged by the Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On Improving Foreign Language Learning" adopted in 1961, This gave rise to extensive research work with the emphasis on experimentation. The result is new textbooks and a whole series of supplementary teaching materials now in use in schools. These are the main features of the method which we believe may be recommended for the teaching of foreign languages in schools:

l.The aims of our teaching are practical, educational and cultural. The teaching of a foreign language must first and foremost lead pupils to practical mastery of it. There are four abilities to train: hearing, speaking, reading, writing with understanding as the main ingredient in each. This indicates that the teacher's chief concern should not be only over difficulties of pronunciation, the growth of vocabulary or grammar, but over language abilities, that is, over getting pupils' language abilities into action. The learning of any new language can add to the pupil's mental equipment, sharpen his wits and develop his intelligence. Foreign language teaching in schools should also contribute to the pupil's general development.

2. The method is based upon a scientific approach to the determination of the content of teaching. This implies careful selection of linguistic material, a clear idea of the desired result in terms of the habits and skills that should be acquired by pupils; in other word, the exact knowledge of what one expects to achieve at every stage of instruction.

3. The method is guided by the following principles: (a) oral language is the principal means of teaching a foreign language to achieve any objective the teacher sets (b) the method is based on the following sequence of lan­guage activities: pupils assimilate the material orally before they read and write it;

(c) active teaching techniques are widely used: visual, audio and audio-visual aids, teaching materials for stimulating the pupil's speech activities;

(d) a special emphasis is laid on a definite sequence informing language skills:

• getting information about a language unit;

• various drill exercises within the target language suffi­cient for fixing the material in pupils memory and forming habits in using it;

• a large number of creative exercises for the pupils to participate actively in the process of communication;

(e) the method strives for the constant increase of active time for each pupil to practise in hearing, speaking, reading,and writing.

All this should find its reflection in a sequence of lessons as well as in each separate lesson. It should also be applied to work after classes (extra-curricular work and optional course).

Since the distinguishing features of the method are (1) a conscious approach to language learning, and (2) the acquisition of the language through pupils' practice in using it, we may accept the name offered by B. V. Belyaev, the conscious-practical (сознательно-практический), to emphasize the path followed in the acquisition of the language skill's from conscious approach to automaticy. Such an approach to foreign language teaching is psychologically sound and fully justified as has been proved by numerous investigations and experiments carried out by Soviet methodologists.

Since it is the teacher who teaches pupils a foreign language, a few words should be said about his work.

Teaching a foreign language is hard work. But hard work nearly always bring success when a teacher does his best to make his pupils do the work. P.Gurrey is right when he says that few people realize what an unceasing expenditure of thought and energy is essential for teaching this- subject. . Indeed, a foreign Ian age teaching requires so much mental and physical activity cause of the complexity of language learning. On the one hand, e teacher must provide his pupils with the knowledge of different aspects of the language (phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary), on the other hand, he should equip them with habits and skills in hearing (listening comprehension), speaking, reading, and writing. Hence, the teacher of a foreign language needs: (!) a good command of the language he teaches, and a sufficient knowledge of its phonic, graphic, grammar systems and vocabulary; (2) a knowledge of pedagogics and psychology; the nature of the learner and the nature of teaching and learning processes; (3) a knowledge of teaching methods and techniques, the best and most effective ones to use; an understanding of the purpose and aim of each method and device he uses; (4) confidence and skill in his handling of teaching techniques.

This will allow the teacher to find the right approach to each particular situation and, therefore, to be really proficient.

Questions:

1. Outline the main characteristics of the method used in teaching

foreign languages in Soviet schools. Do you believe they are fully

justified? Give your reasons.

Recommended Literature:

Dickinson, L. 1987. Self-instruction in Language Learning,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, G. and B. Sinclair. 1989. Learning to Learn English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lowes, R. and Target, F. 1998. Helping Students to Learn. London: Richmond.

Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Willis, D. and J. Willis (eds.)- 1996. Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford; Heinemann.

LECTURE 12, 13

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

1. The methods developed in the 1960s and 1970s in Britain, the USA

2. The 'Course Design Approach'

3. The best method

4. English as the main classroom language

This approach grew out of new theories of language and language learning that developed in the 1960s and 1970s in Britain, the USA, and elsewhere, as well as new classroom procedures. It is probably the approach most used by trained language teachers today. But it is implemented in very different ways by different teachers working in different contexts. It is an approach with wide variations, not a well-defined method. By its very nature it is eclectic.

In principle, even if not always in practice, language is seen in terms of:

- What we do with utterances, their specific communicative functions (for example, informing, enquiring, ordering, and inviting) and not just in terms of the formal structure of sentences and their basic meanings.

- How we really use language in authentic discourse—for example, when we say:

A. Hey, you're wanted in Room 13.

B. Where is it?

A. On the next floor. B.Thanks. and when we say:

A. Excuse me. Could you tell me where Room 13 is? B Yes, it's on the next floor.

A. Thank you.

B. Not at all.as well as the fact that we seldom, if ever, say:

A. Where is Room 13?

B. Room 13 is on the next floor.

Also in principle, even if not always in practice, language learning is seen as essentially a long process of acquisition through exposure to and communicative use of the language, with many inevitable mistakes. However, conscious effort and a wide range of formal learning activities can significantly speed up and improve the learners' progress, especially in the case of adolescents and adults. Repetition practice is used in most Communicative Language Teaching, but it is normally of the Situations! Language Teaching type -- situationally contextualized and meaningful. Interesting, motivating communicative skills work, including integrated skills work, is emphasized as one of the best ways to promote both subconscious acquisition and conscious learning of the language. Communicative activities inevitably mean that the teacher relaxes control over what the learners hear, say, read, write—and think—and so the learners have to take some control over their own learning. In Communicative Language Teaching, this independence from the teacher, or learner autonomy, is generally considered essential for success in language learning.

The 'Course Design Approach'

The 'Course Design Approach' is a term we have invented for

this book. The principle is that teachers should find out exactly who

ley are teaching in every course they give; for example, what the

learners' interests are, their learning styles, and their current or

possible future uses of English, They should then plan and run lessons always taking this knowledge into account. It refers in part to the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) movement that began in the late 1960s. ESP recognizes the different needs of different groups of learners, and focuses on the design of appropriate courses for them. What kind of eourse is appropriate for a group of medical researchers with a knowledge of no more than basic English grammar and vocabulary? What kind of course is appropriate for a group of tourist resort waiters with virtually no English at ail? Obviously, the two groups need very different courses, especially if they both have an immediate need for English in their work and limited time for study. These are extreme examples, but every teaching-learning situation calls for at least some adaptation of teaching methodology and coursebook materials.

What works best?

To conclude this survey of approaches and methods, a general point should be made. The Grammar-translation Method, the Direct Method, Situation-al Language Teaching, the Audiolingual Method, TPR, the Silent Way, Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia, the Natural Approach, and Communicative Language Teaching have all contributed potentially useful ideas to English teaching. But developments in linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, and second language acquisition research have cast light on what is more likely and less likely to work. At a minimum, we have learnt that an approach on the general lines of Communicative Language Teaching is much more likely to work in the' majority of teaching-learning situations than the Grammar-translation Method or the Audiolingual Method.

If communication in English is to be perceived by the learners as the main goal of course English should be used for real communication in the classroom as much as possible. This means introducing some of the English needed for genuine communication early in the course, for example, that needed for routine greetings, instructions and requests. And, depending on the overall objectives of the course, as much time as possible should also be given to realistic work on the language skills that the learners need to master, for example, conversation, reading comprehension, or written composition.

English as the main classroom language

Among the many possible uses of English in the classroom are:

- greetings and farewells, for example: 'Good morning. How are you?'; 'See you tomorrow.'

- instructions, for example: 'Open your books at page sixty-two. Look at the picture.'

- enquiries, for example: 'Can you see, David? Would you like to move over here?'

- feedback, for example: That's interesting, Maria. Very good.¹

- chat, for example, calling roll: Tony . . . No? Where is he today? Does anyone know?'

Many of these interactions recur naturally, class after class. They can quickly become routines for the learners, just as they would learn common interactions if they were living in an English-speaking country. Some teachers try to introduce English in the classroom little by little, using the learners' first language most of the time at first. This is rather like trying to give up smoking little by little—it hardly ever works. One of your first objectives in an English language course, even with beginners, should be to establish English as the main classroom language.

Teaching ideas

Here are some of the most useful techniques for presenting new English expressions for use in the classroom:

- Demonstration with actions and objects

For example, close your own book as you say 'Close your books', hold up a sheet of paper as you say Take a sheet of paper, one sheet of paper', or draw columns on the board as you say 'Draw three columns like this'.

- Gesture and mime

For example, make the typical gesture with your hand as you say 'Stand up', 'Come here', or 'Sit down'; mime writing as you say 'Write the answers', or mime distributing things as you say 'Please give out these photocopies'.

- Paraphrase

Use a cognate expression, that is, one similar to an expression in the learners' first language - for example, That's correct' helps

Spanish learners understand 'That's right', and 'Excellent' helps them understand 'Very good¹.

• Translation into English

For example, learners may say in their LI 'What does that mean?', 'I don't understand¹, or 'Will you repeat that?' You can put the English versions of such useful expressions on cards on the wall and point to them when necessary. Add cards for new expressions as you introduce them.

• Translation

Give the translation of the new expression the first time you use it, but after that get a learner to demonstrate or, if necessary, translate.

Constant, consistent use of routine classroom expressions in English soon gets learners accustomed to them. Once your learners are familiar with an expression, stop supporting it with demonstration, gesture, mime, paraphrase, or translation. However, remember that if classroom language becomes too varied too soon, it can overwhelm some learners and demotivate them. To start with, control the range of language you use: speak naturally, but fairly slowly and carefully. You would probably do the same outside the classroom with non-native speakers of your language. Increase the range and speed of classroom English gradually as learners advance.

Of course, with groups that share a first language, occasional use of it is appropriate, for example:

• to discuss briefly feelings about the course, progress, and plans

• to clarify ideas or instructions that are more complex than usual

• to make a useful comparison between English and the first language.

And you can never entirely stop the learners comparing English with their first language and translating in their own heads. This is both natural and beyond your control.

In some cases it may seem impossible to cover the syllabus using English most of the time. But the important question is whether 'covering the syllabus' using the learners' first language most of the really produces worthwhile learning. At the end of the course, can "l actually do anything with English - understand it or express hem selves in it effectively to some degree? If they cannot, you may have nothing to lose and a lot to gain by switching from their first language to English as the main classroom language. You can often motivate learners towards this switch by discussing it briefly with them -in their first language, of course.

Of course, using English as the main classroom language can be a learning opportunity and a challenge for non-native teachers of English as well as for learners. The teachers practice their own English more, but may also make a few mistakes. For example, speakers of many languages often say 'Very well' instead of 'Very good', and '1 want that you work in pairs' instead of 'I want you to work in pairs'. Many teachers may need to do a little research into classroom English. But a few mistakes are far outweighed by the benefits of using English in the classroom: it can get learners to feel that they are really using English for a purpose.

Routine communicative activities

If you take all the natural opportunities to use English for communication in the classroom, you remind the learners of the main goal of the course. If you create additional opportunities, you send an even stronger message. If you do not take and 'make such opportunities, you send them the message that \ the purpose of the course is just to learn information about the language and pass tests. This means that many learners are likely to lose motivation and see English as just another compulsory subject in the academic curriculum.

One regular opportunity for an extra communicative activity is the 'warm-up¹ at the beginning of each lesson. Some teachers begin most lessons with a review of the language items practiced in the previous lesson. This approach almost always starting lessons with a focus on language - tends to make learners see the learning of language forms, structures, and rules as the main purpose of the course. The teaching seems to be directed towards short-term objectives only -learning one item after another for the next test. Instead, you can start lessons with real communication in English. Without focusing obviously on any specific language forms, engage the learners in a simple communicative activity, using language they already know. Here are some examples of communicative warm-ups. They are all suitable for elementary-level classes, but the last ones require more English than the first ones. They should each take from five to ten minutes.

Questions:

l.What was the best methods you have ever taken?

2. Why was it better than other methods (think about the teacher, the group, the book, and the activities)?

3.Did you feel that you were really learning to communicate in the language?

Recommended Literature:

Campbell, C. and H. Kryszewska. 1992. Learner-based Teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hadfield, J. 1984. Elementary Communication Games. Walton-on-Thames: Nelson.

Hedge, T. 1988. Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nuttal, C. 1996. Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. Oxford:

Heinemann.

Nolasco, R. and L. Arthur. 1987. Conversation. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Porter-Ladousse, G. 1987. Role Play. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seligson, P. 1997. Helping Students to Speak. London: Richmond. Underwood, M. 1989. Teaching Listening. Harlow: Longman. Ur, P. 1981. Discussions that Work, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ur, P. 1984. Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wallace, C. 1992. Reading. Oxford: Oxford University Press. White, G. 1998. Listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

LECTURE 14, 15. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS

Plan

1. Development in teaching English

2. Self-development

3. Co-operative development

4. Formal development

Although we may not see any distinctive new approach or method for a long time, new ideas are continually arising. Some are relevant to virtually all English teaching, but others may apply only to specific teaching-learning situations. Yet others may soon be forgotten. A few ideas that may have a lasting impact are presented the following sections. Some of these have already been

In mentioned in the lecture.

Learner-centred Teaching

Most approaches and methods have assumed for convenience that all learners are more or less the same. But teachers know this is not true. Research is showing how different successful language learners can be, although the most successful learners do tend to have certain things in common, for example, they are motivated, they combine analytical and communicative strategies, and they exploit opportunities to practise. The new awareness among teachers of learner differences has led to a number of important developments in English teaching. Many teachers now try to find out about individual learners' motivations, needs, interests, and learning styles. Learning styles are, for example, a preference for listening-speaking activities rather than read ing-writing activities, for language-focused rather than communication-focused activities, or for lockstep and groupwork rather than individual work. These teachers then prepare lesson plans that take into account the commonest motivations, needs, and interests of the learners, and also offer different learners in the group opportunities to work in the ways they find most comfortable and useful. This involves substituting, supplementing, or adapting coursebook material, including different types of activity d interaction in lessons, and working with learners on an individual basis whenever possible. However, some learners seem to be unsuccessful because their learning styles and strategies are simply not very effective. Many teachers now spend time on learner training, helping learners to be more aware of themselves as learners, and how they can develop whatever strengths they have and overcome their weaknesses. Overcoming weaknesses usually means adopting strategies used by successful learners, such as not being obsessed with total accuracy on the one hand or being satisfied with primitive 'me-Tarzan-you-Jane' communication on the other. Many learner training activities can be incorporated into normal lesson plans, especially at upper elementary and intermediate levels; for example, the use of questionnaires and discussions about aspects of language learning. A characteristic of highly successful learners is that they are autonomous. They do not depend much on teachers. They themselves decide how to study outside class and even how to work in class. They do not constantly depend on teacher feedback and approval. Teachers who organize a lot of free work in class, whether lockstep, in groups or individual, promote learner autonomy. Also, many institutions now provide self-access facilities such as a library, computers, and audio- and video-cassette players which learners can use.

Task- based Learning

The idea of getting learners to acquire English in the process of doing other tasks was developed in India by N. S. Prabhu in the 1980s. His 'Procedural Syllabus' consists, not of language items, but of tasks requiring increasingly complex use of language. The problem-solving or practical tasks, usually done in groups, were designed to interest and challenge the learners sufficiently to get them to use the English they already knew and incorporate new items provided by input materials and the teacher. That led to a general proposal for Task-based Learning, suitable, in principle, for use in most English teaching situations. A three-stage procedure is commonly recommended:

1. Pre-task

- Introduction to the topic and task

- Provision of useful input (listening., reading, brainstorm ing, etc.)

- If necessary, reactivation or provision of essential language

- Definition of the task (objectives, procedures, time limits, etc.)

2. Task

- Planning the task

- Doing the task

-Reporting on the task or presenting the product of the task [teacher monitoring and guiding as necessary all the time]

3. Post-task

_ Focus on the language used

- Practice of the language as necessary

- Retrospective discussion of the task—awareness-raising

It is important to emphasize that tasks in Task-based Learning should have very clear objectives and conclude with a very tangible sense of achievement for the learners.

It is not generally suggested by those who have developed Task-based Learning that courses should consist entirely of tasks. That could become tedious for both learners and teachers. Task-based learning can be used with other approaches in a number of ways, for example, as an alternative way of introducing new language, to do language review and remedial work, and to do skills and general language development work.

Developing as a teacher.

It is very important to get initial training and, if possible, a recognized teaching qualification. However, initial training should be the beginning, not the end, of your professional development. Teacher development programmes can facilitate regular contact with new ideas and their classroom application. Development options can be grouped into three broad categories; Self-development, Co-operative Development, and Formal Development.

Self-development

Constant reflection

Probably the most important and profitable way to develop as a teacher is to think about what you have done in each lesson you teach. You could ask yourself the following questions:

- How effective was the lesson in general?

How did the learners respond to the different activities? -What good bits were there, and why were they good? How could I develop them further?

- What weak bits were there, and why were they weak? How could I have handled them better?

You can note down a few observations at the bottom of your plan immediately after the lesson. You can then use these notes to reflect upon individual lessons, and also to see what patterns—positive and negative— there are in your teaching. Experience is really useful only if you constantly reflect upon it. This may be difficult at first, with little to compare your limited experience with. But as you acquire experience in reflecting upon leaching as we 1.1 as actually teaching, it becomes easier to understand the underlying reasons for your successes and your failures.

Diary writing

Reflection can be based on more than a few notes and vague memories. Keeping a diary of your teaching activities over a whole term can really help you to appreciate how much your learners and you yourself have progressed, and why. If you find that the story you are telling in your diary is not very positive, this can motivate you to make changes and explore new options. In this way, you can begin to know yourself professionally—-what you are good at and what you need to work on more.

Recording lessons

Sometimes it is difficult to remember what actually happened in a lesson, even immediately after it has ended. One way to overcome this problem is to record lessons or parts of lessons. Simply switch on a cassette recorder at the point of the lesson you have chosen, perhaps the very beginning, and try to forget it is recording. You can then replay the recording at home, and analyse and reflect on what you hear.

As a result of this analysis and reflection, you may find that you want to try and do some of the following things:

- Reduce the amount of talking you do and elicit more from the learners, listening more patiently to them.

Make the talking you do sound more suitable and ' teresting for your learners according to their age and other

characteristics.

Make your instructions and explanations clearer and more

effective.

- Eliminate mistakes in English that you have been making

peatedly without realizing it, even though you recognize them re when you hear them.

- Make your interaction with the learners more natural,

After you have worked on your plans for change for a while, you can record some lessons again and check on your progress.

Reading

One of the best ways of keeping up with developments in the profession is to read English teaching books, journals, newsletters, and Internet publications. If the institution where you work does not already have such resources, you may be able to persuade the management to make some of them available. A small teacher's library does not have to cost much. The core can be a selection of basic English teaching textbooks like this one, and others on specific areas such as the teaching of vocabulary, grammar, listening, speaking, reading, and writing. A selection of modern coursebooks containing recent teaching ideas can also be very useful. You may also occasionally be able to invest in books for yourself, or subscribe to journals such as ELT Journal or English Teaching Forum. A number of useful books are listed in 'Sources and further reading' at the end of this book.

Co-operative development Sharing with colleagues The teachers in an institution ought to communicate with one another, principally for the sake of the learners. It is a matter of professional ethics that the staff of any educational institution lould work together, not against one another or in isolation. The benefits of this can be enormous for teachers as well as learners Sharing experiences and ideas with colleagues increases your own experience and ideas, and it can give you a better perspective on your own work. You can measure your achievement against a more objective standard.

Peer observation

In many places it is almost a tradition to teach behind closed doors. Some very experienced teachers have never in their professional lives seen another teacher at work, nor had feedback from anyone observing their teaching. This lack of shared experience greatly restricts professional development: even occasional observation of another teacher's lessons can greatly promote it. Perhaps you arc sometimes observed by a coordinator. This can be very useful if the coordinator is professional and sensitive rather than just authoritarian. Unfortunately, authoritarian 'inspection' of classes makes many teachers see any observer as a threat. But peer observation between colleagues can be friendly and collaborative, and therefore often more acceptable and useful. Visiting a colleague's classroom, and just sitting and observing, allows you to notice many things that you are simply not aware of while you are busy teaching.

When observing, it is usually best to focus on only one or two aspects of the lesson. And remember that it is often better to watch the learners rather than the teacher. What the learners do and do not do is probably the best indication of how effective the teaching is. Your comments to your colleague after the lesson will almost certainly be useful if you focus on the learners, since teachers often fail to notice many aspects of learner behaviour because they are too busy runnjijg the lesson. In addition, make sure you comment on the best aspects of the lesson. Most of us need as much realistic encouragement as we can get.

Formal development In-service training programmes

In almost every professional or technical field nowadays, the initial training and knowledge you acquire will not be sufficient for you to function satisfactorily for the whole of your working career. If you also have an ambition to rise in the profession, in-service training tiai Many professionals nowadays are already thinking of their coursebefore they graduate from their initial training ammeRemember that the in-service training you undertake,

from improving your teaching skills, will also raise your Sessional status and increase your value in the job market. It is a option for most teachers, and more and more employers are

imv demanding it. It is also worth mentioning that the best in-service raining courses are often quite difficult to enter.

{Examine two or three coursebooks designed for distinct teaching-learning situations, for example, a primary beginners course, an adults' elementary course, and an ESP course (English for doctors, engineers, etc.).

2. Note the most striking differences in the materials and activities, and try to relate these to:

a ) the approaches and methods described in this chapter.

b ) the teaching—learning situation the coursebooks are intended for.

3. Select one unit from a book you were not previously familiar with. Consider how exactly you would use it in class—what you would omit, substitute, supplement, or adapt. Consider also what kind of relationship you should try to establish with the learners.

Recommended Literature

Dickinson, L. 1987. Self-instruction in Language Learning.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, G. and B. Sinclair. 1989. Learning to Learn English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lowes, R. and Target, F. 1998. Helping Students to Learn. London: Richmond. Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Willis, D. and J. Willis (eds.). 1996. Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann.: