Grammatical category

Grammatical category	Grammatical category	Grammatical form
Number (noun)	Its meaning reflects the existence of individual objects and groups of objects in the material world.	Singular – Plural O –s, -es, en, inner inflexion
Gender (Noun)	It reflects the sex of the object	Male – Female – Neutral O (he) –es (she) – O’(it)
Case (Noun)	It reflects the relation of the substances the noun name to other substances, actions, state, etc. in the world of reality.	Common – Genitive (4 cases) (0)-(‘s, -of -) (disputable)
Tense	It shows the time of the action	P resent –Past – Future (-S-,O,) –(ed)-will/shall +verb
Time correlation	It shows if the action is viewed as prior to, irrespective of other actions or situations.	Non-Continuous-Continuous (O) – (to be + verb-ing)
Voice	It shows if the action is represented as issuing from its subject or as experienced by its object.	Active – Passive-(Middle) (O) – (to be + verb - ed)
Mood	It reflects the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker’s point of view.	1 person – 2 person
Person (verb)	It represents an action as associated by the speaking person with himself or persons addressed or others.	1 person-2person -3person (0) –(0) –(verb -s)
Number	It shows if the action is associated with one do or with many.	Singular – Plural (verb+(es) 3 person, Present) – (O)
Degrees of comparison	It shows if the adjective denotes the property of some substances. Absolutely, or relatively as a higher or the highest amount of the property in comparison with mat of some other substances.	Positive – Comparative-Superlative (O) – (-er, more) – (est, the most)

Lecture 2. Theme: Morphology (1. Morpheme, 2. Grammar). Paradigmatic relation of grammatical units. Parts of speech

1. Morphology

2. Morpheme

The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words. It follows from this that morphology as part of grammatical theory faces the two segmental r the morpheme and the word. But, as we have already pointed morphemes is not identified otherwise than part of the word; functions of the morpheme are effected only as the corresponding constituent functions on the word as a whole.

For instance, the form of the verbal past tense is built up by means of the dental grammatical suffix: train-ed [-d]; publish-ed [-t]; meditate -ed [-ed].

However, the past tense as a definite type of grammatical meaning is expressed not by the dental morpheme in isolation, but by the verb (i.e. word) taken in the corresponding form (realized by its morphemic composition); the dental suffix is immediately related to the stem of the verb and together with the stem constitutes the temporal correlation in the paradigmatic system of verbal categories.

Thus, in studying the morpheme we actually study the word in the necessary details of its composition and functions, Grammatical morphemes are scarce in English due to the prevalence of" analytical or zero ending formations. They are called form-building (morphological) morphemes (e.g.: -ed of the past) as opposed lo word-building (lexical) ones (e.g.: -ment in government, - s in less in jobless) which do not belong to grammar as they serve to: ate separate lexical subclasses and therefore lack the wide-range traction and universality characteristics of grammatical units. E.g.: s the whole of the class of verbs subjected to this kind of form-building (so called regular verbs) whereas word-building morphemes cover a narrow range of words grouped into formal or semantic subclasses.

A form-building morpheme is inevitably a member of an '•e. is opposed to some other morpheme expressing the same general grammatical category. It is part of a paradigmatic set of one and the same word, whereas word-building morphemes tar I form an opposition; besides they are attached to different words vii different paradigms.

Grammatical morphemes do not appear isolated; they always form part of a grammar (word-form). A morpheme is the only unit which cannot be cut further, As most words which one encounters h an English text (or in speech) are devoid of any grammatical inflection, it would be useless for grammar lo label each word or each base to which a form-building morpheme might be added as a "morpheme". We consider it more rational. in the process of grammatical description, to name word-forms which are capable of creating a paradigm and to which some form-building morpheme may be added - base, e.g.: speak-bass; speaks - base + form-building morpheme -.v; speaking - base + -ing, etc. Or: boy-boys - base + -s (plural).

In this connection the singling out of a zero morpheme in English morphology becomes superfluous as "zero" means no morpheme at all, and this is too universal a phenomenon in English to call for special consideration.

The definition of a morpheme current in linguistics nowadays is that of a "minimal meaningful unit (L. Bloomfield). The definition is defective in that it does not specify what kind of meaning is understood and it does not mark out the difference between form-building and word-building morphemes. Gleason's definition is more careful: "A morpheme is a minimal unit in the plane of expression which relates to some unit of the plane of content5'. Gleason considers it to be a minimal unit of grammar. However, morphemes in English arc mostly word-building ones, i.e. lexical.

A form-building morpheme may be defined as ;m element 01 the word which signals the kind of grammatical meaning attached to it by the presence of the morpheme. The morpheme itself has a purely relational grammatical meaning which is revealed only by contrast with some other morpheme or grammar which exposes a contrastive grammatical meaning. A morpheme as a unit of grammar is exponent of a grammatical category (or grammatical meaning).

lb. The Grammar (Word-form)

The next grammatical unit on the rank scale is the word and its grammar (word-form). The "grammar" is convenient because it is monose-mantic; its inner form suggest a grammatical unit, and its -mantic origin puts it on them . scTie as the morpheme and phoneme. It may be, thought not necessarily is, equivalent to a word, at any rate it presents an isolated, it not part of a word. It is a carrier of grammatical information.

When we speak of a word as a grammar we abstract ourselves from its lexical meaning and concentrate on the kind of grammatical information it carries, e.g.: the grammar speaks shows the present tense 3rd person singular. It can be identified in such a way exclusively due 10 the to the existence of opposed forms, such as speak, spoke, is speaking, etc. contrasted to speaks in different distinctive features (or grammatical meanings). Here the relational property of grammatical meanings is revealed. The lexical meaning of the word is irrelevant for the detection of the type of grammar.

For practical purposes of grammatical description it is possible to use the term "word-form" for a concrete lexical unit regarded as a grammar, e.g.: worked is a word-form of the verb to work expressing the indefinite tense; if viewed as a pattern of some grammatical value or meaning worked can be said to be a grammar.

A grammar may be analytical by structure, which means that consists of more than one word (e.g., has spoken); an analytical grammar is equivalent to one word on the rank scale as it expresses unified content of a word, both from the point of view of grammatical and lexical meaning.

Morphemes and grammars are directly observable units by that they are characterized by a definite material structure of their own. They can be registered and enumerated in any language, implicated the system of form-building might be in a language (cf. in Greek and Latin, there is great variety of types of conjugation and declension, but nevertheless they are all registered in grammar).

Therefore the system of morphological units is a closed systems in that all its items are on the surface and can be embraced in inventory of forms.

Not every word is at the same time a grammar, but nevertheless it is a unit of grammar as a part of speech. Parts of speech are usually considered a lexico-grammatical category since on the hand, they show lexical groupings of words; on the other h " grouping present generalized classes, each with unified, abst-meaning of its own. The latter makes word-classes a grammatical notion since wide-range abstraction is characteristic of grammar I part of speech, as a generalized word-class possesses a certain valency i.e. inner potential to combine with other word-classes in linear order (in actual speech), in accordance with this potency words make combinations (phrases, groups), which present the next unit on the grammatical rank scale.