22.Pyelonephritis is a type of urinary tract infection (uti) that affects one or both kidneys. Pyelonephritis is caused by a bacterium or virus infecting the kidneys

Symptoms of pyelonephritis can vary depending on a person’s age and may include the following:

• fever

• vomiting

• back, side, and groin pain

• chills

• nausea

• frequent, painful urination

Definition

Pyelonephritis is a serious bacterial infection of the kidney that can be acute or chronic.

Symptoms

chills,

high fever and pain

flank pain

confusion,

loss of appetite, 

headache,.

renal colic pain of kidney stones 

 (high blood pressure) or anemia 

24. Acute kidney injury (also called acute renal failure) means that your kidneys  have suddenly stopped working. When your kidneys stop working, waste products, fluids, and electrolytes build up in your body.

• Causes of Acute Kidney Failure

Acute kidney failure can occur for many reasons. Among the reasons are:

• autoimmune kidney diseases such as acute nephritic syndrome and interstitial nephritis

• urinary tract obstruction

• burns

• dehydration

• hemorrhage

• injury

• septic shock

• serious illness

• surgery

• acute pyelonephritis

• Symptoms of Acute Kidney Failure

  • bloody stools

  • breath odor

  • slow, sluggish movements

  • swelling - generalized (fluid retention)

  • fatigue

  • pain between ribs and hips

  • hand tremor

  • bruising easily

  • changes in mental status or mood, especially if you are elderly

  • decreased appetite

  • decreased sensation, especially in your hands or feet

  • prolonged bleeding

  • seizures

  • nausea

  • vomiting

  • hiccups that won’t resolve

  • elevated blood pressure

  • metallic taste

Treatment A diet high in carbohydrates and low in protein, salt, and potassium is usually recommended.

Antibiotics

 Diuretics may be used to help your kidneys eliminate fluid.

Calcium and insulin

Diseases of the respiratory tract

31. What organs does the respiratory system consist of? What is their anatomy?

29. The entire process of gas exchange between the atmosphere and body cells is called respiration. Events of respiration include: (1) movement of air into and out of the lungs-commonly called breathing or ventilation; (2) gas exchange between air and blood in the lungs; (3) gas transport in blood between the lungs and body cells; and (4) gas exchange between blood and body cells. Oxygen utilization and carbon dioxide production at the cellular level is called cellular respiration.

31. How many functional components does the respiratory system comprise? What are they?

The respiratory system contains the upper and the lower respiratory tracts.

The upper respiratory tract contains the respiratory organs located outside the chest cavity: the nose and the nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx and upper trachea.

The lower respiratory tract consists of organs located in the chest cavity: the lower trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and the lungs.

The respiratory centre in the brain, which is located in the medulla oblongata, regulates breathing. (Herlihy et al. 2000).