Computing Languages

Programming is the process of writing a program using a computer language. Unfortunately, computers can't understand English or any other natural language. The only language they understand directly is machine code, which consists of 1s and 0s (binary code).

M achine code is too difficult to write. For this reason, to communicate instructions to the computer we use symbolic languages that are easier to understand. For example, assembly languages use abbreviations such as ADD, SUB, MPY to represent instructions. The program is then translated into machine code by a software called an assembler. Machine code and assembly languages are called low-level languages because they are closer to the hardware. They are quite complex and restricted to particular machines.

To make the programs easier to write, and to overcome the problem of intercommunication between different types of computer, software developers designed high-level languages, which are closer to human languages. The program written in high-level languages must be translated into machine code by a compiler or an interpreter.

Here are some examples:

• PASCAL is used in universities to teach the fundamentals of programming.

• BASIC was widely used in microcomputer programming as a teaching language because it was easy to learn. The name BASIC stands for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.

• Visual BASIC is a modern version of the old BASIC. It is a programming environment, not simply a language, which is used to write general purpose applications for the Windows operating system. The adjective Visual refers to the technique used to create a graphical user interface. Instead of writing a lot of instructions to describe interface elements, you just add pre-defined objects such as buttons, icons and dialog boxes. It enables programmers to create a variety of Windows applications

• Delphi is similar to Visual Basic. It is also a programming environment for developing programs for the Windows operating system. It has predefined objects that can be chosen from a toolbox. In Delphi, however, the code attached to the objects is written in a form of Pascal. You can think of Delphi as a kind of 'Visual Pascal'. Like Visual Basic, it is often used for general purpose programs.

• С language is used to write system software, graphics and commercial programs. C++ was developed from the С language. It was designed as a systems programming language with features that make it easy to control the computer hardware efficiently. It was used to produce the Microsoft Windows operating system. It is portable, i.e. programs written in C++ can be easily adapted for use on many different types of computer systems.

• Java is an object-oriented programming language originally designed for programming small electronic devices. It is similar to С++, but more dynamic and simplified to eliminate possible programming errors. It can run unchanged on any operating system that has a Java Interpreter program. Java is used for writing programs for the World Wide Web. Java applets are small programs that run automatically on web pages and let you watch animated characters and moving text, play music and games and interact with information on the screen (for example, control animations and select options).

• JavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language, designed for use inside webpages. It is powerful and easy to use. The developers of JavaScript wanted to create the language similar to Java but much easier for usual users. Scripts are small programs that can be used to perform simple tasks or tie other programs together. JavaScript can enable a webpage to respond to a mouse click or input on a form. It can also provide a way of moving through webpages and produce simple animation.

It is important not to confuse programming languages with markup languages, used to create web documents. Markup languages use instructions, known as markup tags, to format and link text files. Some examples include:

• HTML, which stands for Hyper Text Markup Language, is a page description language used for creating webpages. It allows us to describe how information will be displayed on web pages. HTML uses a system of tags to mark page links and formatting. For example, the tag <u> tells the program to start underlining a text. Although programs cannot be created using HTML, small programs can be embedded in HTML code using a scripting language like JavaScript.

• XML, which stands for Extensible Markup Language. While HTML uses pre-defined tags, XML enables us to define our own tags; it is not limited by a fixed set of tags.

• VoiceXML, which makes Web content accessible via voice and phone. VoiceXML is used to create voice applications that run on the phone, whereas HTML is used to create visual applications (for example, web pages).

Task 2. Now answer these questions about special features of the languages.

1. Do computers understand human languages? Why? / Why not?

2. What is the function of an assembler?

3. Why did software developers design high-level languages?

4. Which language is used to teach programming techniques?

5. Which language uses a system of tags?

6. Which languages are designed to be used inside webpages?

7. Which language was used to write the Windows operating system?

8. What is a 'portable' language?

9. Which language can have small programs embedded in it using JavaScript?

10. What does HTML stand for?

11. Which languages can only be used in the Windows operating system?

12. Which language cannot be used for writing programs?

13. Why are HTML and VoiceXML called markup languages?

Task 3. Look back at the notes you made in the table. Make an oral summary of the reading text based on your notes.

Example: C++ is a programming language. It is used for general and systems programming.

Task 4. Using the information in the reading text and the table, decide which languages would be best for these users and tasks.

1. A language for school pupils learning to program for the first time.

2. A language for professional programmers who want their software to run on any type of computer system.

3. A language for a student who wants to create her own webpage.

4. A language for a website designer who wants to include simple animation in a site.

5. A language for computing students who want to write a general purpose program as a college project.

Listening 7. Listen and complete this extract from a lecture handout about Java. Translate the text.

The idea for Java started in 1990, when a team of__________ engineers at Sun Microsystems decided to create a language for a _____________device that could control and __________ with various kinds of electronic appliances, ranging from Nintendo Game Boys to VCRs and TV set-top boxes. They developed an _______________ programming language that one of the engineers, James Gosling, called Oak, ________ the tree outside his window. The device even had an animated ____________ named Duke, who would go on to become Java's mascot.

With the advent of the Web in 1993, the company made a web ______ based on the Oak language. Later on, this language was __________ to the Internet and renamed Java. The 1.0 version of Java was officially introduced by Sun in May 1995.

At that time, web pages could only ___________text, pictures and hyperlinks. With the arrival of Java, web designers were able to ___________ animation and interactive programs on web pages. The first major _________________ created with Java was the Hotjava browser. The Java language began to attract serious _____________ from the internet community and was soon supported by Netscape Navigator and MS Internet Explorer. Today, Java is a hot technology that __________on multiple platforms, including smart cards, ____________ devices, mobile phones and computers.

Language work: Compound terms

The language of computing in English contains an ever-increasing number of compound terms, that is, a group of two or more nouns which act as a single noun.

Examples:

memory capacity an arithmetic unit

information systems a bar code scanner

All these expressions have one thing in common: the last word in the chain says what the thing is, while the preceding word or group of words describes the thing. So when we read compound nouns, we have to start with the last word and work backwards.

Examples:

The memory capacity of a computer is the capacity of its memory,

A large number of possible meanings can be expressed by compound terms. For instance, the first noun or group of nouns can tell us about:

1 Material: the first noun tells us what the second consists of.

Examples: a silicon chip (a chip made of silicon)

a ferrite ring (a ring made of ferrite)

1. Function: the first noun tells us what the second noun is for.

Examples: an address bus (a bus dedicated to address information)

an input device (a device for inputting)

an arithmetic unit (a unit which performs arithmetic functions)

3 Part: the second noun refers to a part of the first noun.

Examples: a computer keyboard (the keyboard of a computer)

a monitor screen (the screen of a monitor)

a program feature (a feature of a program)

4. Activity or person: the second noun refers to an activity or person related to the first noun.

Examples: computer programming (the programming of computers)

a computer programmer (a person who programs computers)

systems analysis (the analysis of organizational systems

a systems analyst (a person who analyses organizational systems)

Multiple nouns: sometimes a compound noun will join together with one or more other nouns to give an expression that has three or four words. In such cases, it is important to examine the expression very carefully to break it into its constituent parts. The secret, as always, is to read the expression from the back towards the front.

Example:

4 3 2 1

a document-image-processing program (a program which processes images of documents)

Note: some expressions are written separately, while others are joined by hyphens. There are no clear rules for this. Sometimes you will see the same expression written in different ways in different texts.

Example:

document-image-processing program

document image-processing program

document image processing program

Task 1.

A device that scans bar codes is called a bar code scanner.

What name is given to:

1. a unit that gives a visual display of information on a screen?

2. a device that reads magnetic cards?

3. a device that plots graphs?

4. a device that prints using a laser as the light source?

5. a unit that holds magnetic disks?

6. a device that prints using a jet of ink?

7. the rate of transmission of data?

8. a package for making presentations using multimedia?

9. a program which processes data in batches?

10. the process for the conversion of disks for computers?

Task 2. Using the explanations in Task 1 as models, write short simple explanations of the following items:

1. an input device

2. an optical character reader

3. a graphics stylus

4. a document sorter

5. a fibre optics transmission system

6. a sequence control register

7. a liquid crystal display

8. network configuration information

9. a desktop document manager

10. a multimedia editing software package