26. Is intonation always in balance with the grammatical structure and word content?

No, in some cases intonation can change the meaning of the sentence or give some additional meaning. Even the syntactic (communicative) types of sentences can be differentiated. E.g.: Isn’t it wonderful ( Low Rise – question, High Fall – interjection)

Will you stop talking ( command, request)

In tag questions intonation can express a question (Rise).

You don't like coffee, do you?

Rising tone can also denote a request:

You couldn't lend me a pound, could you?

If we don’t ask for information and just use it to encourage further conversation, we use falling tone.

It isn 't very warm, is it?

• Intonation can express a variety of attitudinal meanings and is capable of differentiating them.

She’s passed the exam (Low Fall only – dispassionate, uninterested, High Head + High Fall – lively, interested, Rise –Fall – awed)

How much did you pay for it?

In this case not only the nuclear tone, but the type of head and pre-head can perform the distinctive function.

This function is also called attitudinal or emotional.

• Intonation can differentiate the meaning of the whole phrase. The change of meaning is achieved by the use of different terminal tones.

Have you read this book?

Not once (Low Fall – «ни разу», Fall-rise – «много раз»)

I don’t want to read anything (Fall – «вообще ничего», fall-rise – «что попало»)

Placement of the nuclear tone and pauses can also affect the meaning of the whole phrase:

1) I have plans to \leave (я собираюсь уехать)

I have \plans to leave (у меня есть планы(бумаги), которые надо оставить)

2) Those who sold \quickly |met profit

Those who \sold| quickly met profit

27. Rhythm in english

Rhythm is viewed as a kind of framework of speech organization.

In a broad sense rhythm is understood as periodicity in time and space. The notion of rhythm implies that something occurs at regular intervals of time. It can be observed in the succession of seasons, heart beating, breathing, in music, dancing and other forms of art.

Speech rhythm is traditionally defined as a regular occurrence of stressed syllables in a speech continuum.

Speech rhythm is also described in terms of acceleration and slowing down, of relaxation and intensification, length and brevity, similar and dissimilar elements.

Rhythm in Different Languages

languages	For example	rhythm
syllable-timed	French, Spanish, Italian, Greek	equal amount of time is given to each syllable, stressed or unstressed
stress-timed	English, German, Dutch, Russian	stressed syllables occur at equal intervals of time and form peaks of prominence in rhythmic groups

In stress-timed languages rhythm is based on a larger unit than syllable. This rhythmic unit is called the foot or the rhythmic group. The stressed syllables in the rhythmic group form peaks of prominence.

The stressed syllable is the nucleus of the rhythmic group. The unstressed syllables preceding the stressed syllable with which they are grouped are called proclitics, those following the stressed syllable are called enclitics.

There are two theories of grouping of stressed and unstressed syllables:

1) semantic principle: the unstressed syllables tend to be drawn either to the stressed syllable of the same word or to the lexical unit with which they are semantically connected, e.g.

They decided| to go| to the country| for the weekend.

2) enclitic theory: the unstressed syllables tend to join the preceding stressed syllable. E.g.:

They decided to| go to the| country for the| weekend.

Rhythm is usually observed in poetry, literature, public speaking.

Functions of rhythm: organizing (delimitation and integration), aesthetic, pragmatic.