- •Содержание
- •1. The subject matter of phonetics. The contribution of Russian and foreign linguists into the development of phonetics as a linguistic science.
- •2. The connection of phonetics with other branches of linguistics.
- •Grammar and phonetics.
- •3. General and special phonetics and their interconnection. Historical, descriptive and comparative phonetics as branches of special phonetics.
- •4. Four aspects of speech sounds. Branches of phonetics based on these aspects and their connection with non-linguistic sciences.
- •5. Methods and instruments of phonetic investigation.
- •6. Main trends in the phoneme theory
- •7. The Kazan school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •8. The Leningrad school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory
- •9. The Moscow school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •10. The Prague school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •11. The London school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •12. The American school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •13. The definition and characteristics of the phoneme as a unity of three aspects.
- •14. Phonemic variants and their classification Modification of English vowels in connected speech.
- •15. Phonemic variants and their classification Modification of English consonants in connected speech.
- •16. Relevant and irrelevant features of phonemic variants. The invariant. Allophones and phones.
- •17. Distribution of phonemes. Phonemic oppositions.
- •18. Classificatory principles of English consonants as the basis for the phonological oppositions in the system of English consonant phonemes.
- •Work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation.
- •Active organ of speech and the place of obstruction
- •Manner of the noise production and the type of obstruction.
- •19. Classificatory principles of English vowels as the basis for the phonological oppositions in the system of English vowel phonemes.
- •Position of the lips.
- •Position of the tongue.
- •Length.
- •Degree of tenseness
- •The character of the end.
- •20. Differences in articulation basis of English and Russian vowel and consonant phonemes.
- •21. The definition general characteristics and structure of syllables.
- •22. The definition of the syllable. General principles of classification of syllables. Types of syllables.
- •23. The definition of the syllable. Functional characteristics of syllables.
- •24. The definition of the syllable. The expiratory theory of syllable formation.
- •25. The definition of the syllable. The relative sonority theory of syllable formation.
- •26. The definition of the syllable. The muscular tension theory of syllable formation.
- •27. The definition of the syllable. The three types of consonant theory of syllable division.
- •28. The definition of the syllable. The loudness theory of syllable formation.
- •29. The definition and general characteristics of word-stress. Terms synonymous to stress.
- •30. The definition of word-stress. The classification of word-stress according to its relevant features.
- •31. The definition of word-stress. The classification of word-stress according to its position.
- •32. The definition of word-stress. The degrees of word-stress.
- •33. The definition of word-stress. Accentuation tendencies of English.
- •34. The definition of word-stress. Functional characteristics of word-stress.
- •35. The definition if intonation. Voice tambre and temporal characteristics of intonation.
- •36. The definition of intonation. Speech melody as a component of English intonation.
- •37. The definition of intonation. Sentence stress as a component of English intonation.
- •38. The definition of intonation. Rhythm as a component of English intonation.
- •39. The definition of intonation. Functional characteristics of intonation.
- •40. The definition of intonation. Unemphatic and emphatic intonation.
- •41. The definition of a syntagm and its general characteristics.
- •42. The definition of a syntagm. The head, pre-head, tail as elements of a syntagm.
- •43. The nucleus of a syntagm. The principle nuclear tones in English.
- •44. Standard pronunciation of English and its regional variants. Received Pronunciation and non-rp dialects.
- •45. National variants of English pronunciation. The main types of American pronunciation.
- •46. The main differences between Received Pronunciation and General American pronunciation.
21. The definition general characteristics and structure of syllables.
The definition general characteristics and structure of syllables.
Syllables may be defined as the smallest pronounceable units into which sounds tend to group themselves and which in their turn are joined into meaningful language units that are morphemes, words, phrases and sentences. Each of these units is characterized by a certain syllabic structure and consequently has two aspects: syllable formation and syllable division which form a dialectal unity.
The syllable is a complicated phenomenon and like the phoneme it can be analyzed from the acoustic, auditory, articulatory and functional points of view. Acoustically and auditorily a syllable is characterized by the force of utterance, or accent, pitch of the voice, sonority and length, that is by prosodic features.
Articulatory characteristics of a syllable are connected with the syllabic formation and division.
Functional characteristics of a syllable are connected with the constitutive, recognitive and distinctive properties of a syllable.
In English syllable formation is based on the phonological opposition vowel – consonant. Vowels are usually syllabic, while consonants are not, with the exception of the sonorants [l], [m], [n] which become syllabic if they occur in an unstressed final position preceded by a noise consonant.
A syllable may consist of one phoneme or a number of phonemes. The syllabic phoneme forms the peak of prominence (the crest, or the peak of the syllable). One or more consonant phonemes preceding or following the peak of prominence are called slopes. The boundary between two syllables is called the valley of prominence.
As to the number of syllables in the English word it can vary from one to eight. Ex. come [kΛm], city ['si-ti], family ['fæ-mi-li], simplicity [sim-'pli-si-ti], unnaturally [Λn-'næ-t∫ə-rə-li], unsophisticated [Λn-sə-'fi-sti-kei-tid], incompatibility ['in-kom-pæ-ti-'bi-li-ti], unintelligibility ['Λn-in-te-li d3i-'bi-li-ti].
22. The definition of the syllable. General principles of classification of syllables. Types of syllables.
The definition of the syllable. General principles of classification of syllables. Types of syllables.
Syllables may be defined as the smallest pronounceable units into which sounds tend to group themselves and which in their turn are joined into meaningful language units that are morphemes, words, phrases and sentences. There are several generally accepted classifications of syllables based upon various criteria.
First of all phonetic syllables which are distinguished in the actual pronunciation of words should not be mixed up with orthographic syllables, or syllabographs into which words are divided in writing and print or for the application of the so-called reading rules. Syllables of phonetic type need not coincide with those of the orthographic type as the latter are closely connected with the morphemic structure of words.
Ex. phonetic syllables syllabographs:
ranging [ræn-d3iŋ] rang-ing
maker [mei-kə] mak-er
The further classifications concern phonetic syllables.
The syllable as a whole is the carrier of a dynamic stress – variation in the force of utterance. So syllables can be classified according to the accentual weight as stressed and unstressed.
From the view point of syllabic formation that is to say, whether a syllable begins and ends with a vowel or a consonant sound, syllables are classified as open, closed, covered and uncovered. A syllable which begins with a consonant sound and ends in a vowel sound is called covered and open (ex. now [nau]). A syllable which begins with a vowel sound and ends in a consonant sound is called uncovered and closed (ex. on [on]). A syllable which begins and ends in a consonant sound is called covered and closed (ex. man [mæn]). A syllable which begins and ends in a vowel sound is called uncovered and open (ex. awe [o:]).
In some languages syllables are classified from the point of view of their duration (long and short) and from the point of view of their pitch. Thus, in tone languages, where the variation of the pitch of the voice is a distinctive feature, the following types of syllables are distinguished:
a) those pronounced with even pitch;
b) those pronounced on different pitch level (high-level, mid-level);
c) those pronounced with changes of pitch going from one level to another (fall, rise);
d) those pronounced with combination of such changes (fall-rise, rise-fall).