- •Содержание
- •1. The subject matter of phonetics. The contribution of Russian and foreign linguists into the development of phonetics as a linguistic science.
- •2. The connection of phonetics with other branches of linguistics.
- •Grammar and phonetics.
- •3. General and special phonetics and their interconnection. Historical, descriptive and comparative phonetics as branches of special phonetics.
- •4. Four aspects of speech sounds. Branches of phonetics based on these aspects and their connection with non-linguistic sciences.
- •5. Methods and instruments of phonetic investigation.
- •6. Main trends in the phoneme theory
- •7. The Kazan school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •8. The Leningrad school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory
- •9. The Moscow school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •10. The Prague school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •11. The London school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •12. The American school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •13. The definition and characteristics of the phoneme as a unity of three aspects.
- •14. Phonemic variants and their classification Modification of English vowels in connected speech.
- •15. Phonemic variants and their classification Modification of English consonants in connected speech.
- •16. Relevant and irrelevant features of phonemic variants. The invariant. Allophones and phones.
- •17. Distribution of phonemes. Phonemic oppositions.
- •18. Classificatory principles of English consonants as the basis for the phonological oppositions in the system of English consonant phonemes.
- •Work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation.
- •Active organ of speech and the place of obstruction
- •Manner of the noise production and the type of obstruction.
- •19. Classificatory principles of English vowels as the basis for the phonological oppositions in the system of English vowel phonemes.
- •Position of the lips.
- •Position of the tongue.
- •Length.
- •Degree of tenseness
- •The character of the end.
- •20. Differences in articulation basis of English and Russian vowel and consonant phonemes.
- •21. The definition general characteristics and structure of syllables.
- •22. The definition of the syllable. General principles of classification of syllables. Types of syllables.
- •23. The definition of the syllable. Functional characteristics of syllables.
- •24. The definition of the syllable. The expiratory theory of syllable formation.
- •25. The definition of the syllable. The relative sonority theory of syllable formation.
- •26. The definition of the syllable. The muscular tension theory of syllable formation.
- •27. The definition of the syllable. The three types of consonant theory of syllable division.
- •28. The definition of the syllable. The loudness theory of syllable formation.
- •29. The definition and general characteristics of word-stress. Terms synonymous to stress.
- •30. The definition of word-stress. The classification of word-stress according to its relevant features.
- •31. The definition of word-stress. The classification of word-stress according to its position.
- •32. The definition of word-stress. The degrees of word-stress.
- •33. The definition of word-stress. Accentuation tendencies of English.
- •34. The definition of word-stress. Functional characteristics of word-stress.
- •35. The definition if intonation. Voice tambre and temporal characteristics of intonation.
- •36. The definition of intonation. Speech melody as a component of English intonation.
- •37. The definition of intonation. Sentence stress as a component of English intonation.
- •38. The definition of intonation. Rhythm as a component of English intonation.
- •39. The definition of intonation. Functional characteristics of intonation.
- •40. The definition of intonation. Unemphatic and emphatic intonation.
- •41. The definition of a syntagm and its general characteristics.
- •42. The definition of a syntagm. The head, pre-head, tail as elements of a syntagm.
- •43. The nucleus of a syntagm. The principle nuclear tones in English.
- •44. Standard pronunciation of English and its regional variants. Received Pronunciation and non-rp dialects.
- •45. National variants of English pronunciation. The main types of American pronunciation.
- •46. The main differences between Received Pronunciation and General American pronunciation.
18. Classificatory principles of English consonants as the basis for the phonological oppositions in the system of English consonant phonemes.
Classificatory principles of English consonants as the basis for the phonological oppositions in the system of English consonant phonemes.
English consonants are classified according to the following principles:
Work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation.
According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation English consonants are subdivided into voiced and voiceless. Voiced consonants are produced with the vocal cords brought together and vibrating. They are [b, d, g, v, z, ð, 3, d3, l, m, n, j, w, r, ŋ]. Voiceless consonants are produced with the vocal cords taken apart and not vibrating. They are [p, t, k, f, s, θ, ∫, t∫, h]. The force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension are greater in the production of voiceless consonants.
Active organ of speech and the place of obstruction
According to the position of the active organ of speech against the place of obstruction English consonants are classified into labial, lingual and glottal.
Labial consonants are subdivided into bilabial and labiodental. Bilabial consonants are articulated with both lips. They are [p, b, w, m]. Labiodental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. They are [f, v].
Lingual consonants are subdivided into forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual.
Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. According to the place of obstruction English forelingual consonants are subdivided into interdental, alveolar, post-alveolar and palato-alveolar. Interdental consonants are articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth. The are [ð, θ]. Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth ridge. They are [t, d, s, z, l, n]. Post alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge. In English it is [r]. Palato-alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge, the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate. They have two places of articulation. They are [∫, 3, d3, t∫].
Mediolingual consonants are articulated with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate. In English it is [j].
Backlingual consonants are articulated with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate. They are [k, g, ŋ].
Glottal (pharyngeal) consonants are articulated in the glottis. In English it is [h].
Manner of the noise production and the type of obstruction.
According to the type of obstruction consonants are divided into occlusive, constrictive and occlusive-constrictive or affricates. Occlusive consonants are articulated with the air on its way out breaking up a complete obstruction. In English occlusive consonants are subdivided into plosives [p, t, k, b, d, g] which are articulated with distinct and quick separation of the obstruction and sonorants [m, n, ŋ]. Constrictive consonants are articulated with incomplete obstruction through which the air comes out. In English constrictive consonants are subdivided into fricatives [s, f, z, ð, θ, ∫, v, 3, h] which are articulated with the air passage narrowed to such an extent that the air passing through it produces friction, and sonorants [w, r, j, l] which are articulated with the air passage wide enough to make the cavity function as a resonator. Occlusive-constrictive consonants are articulated with the complete obstruction gradually and uninterruptedly opening into narrowing. In English they are [t∫, d3].
Position of the soft palate.
According to the position of the soft palate consonants are subdivided into oral and nasal. Nasal consonants are articulated with the blocked passage for the flow of air through the mouth cavity which is effected by lowering of the soft palate. They are [m, n, ŋ]. All the rest consonants are oral. Oral consonants are articulated with the raised soft-palate, thus the air goes out through the mouth cavity.
Phonological oppositions in the system of English vowel and consonant phonemes.
Classificatory principles of English vowel and consonant phonemes provide the basis for establishing the distinctive oppositions.
Distinctive oppositions of English consonants |
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Classificatory principles and subclasses of phonemes |
Types of oppositions |
Examples |
1. Work of the vocal cords: - voiced [b, d, g, v, z, ð, 3, d3, l, m, n, j, w, r, ŋ]; - voiceless [p, t, k, f, s, θ, ∫, t∫, h]. |
voiced – voiceless The English consonants [l, m, n, j, w, r, ŋ, h] do not enter this opposition. |
gum – come dear – tear bat – pat jin – chin thy – thigh |
2. Position of the soft palate: - nasal [m, n, ŋ]; - oral (all the rest). |
oral – nasal
|
pit – pin seek – seen sick – sing |
3. Active organ of speech and the place of articulation: a) labial: - bilabial [p, b, w, m]; - labio-dental [f, v]; b) lingual: - forelingual [ð, θ, t, d, s, z, n, l, ∫, 3, d3, t∫]; - mediolingual [j]; - backlingual [k, g, ŋ]; c) glottal [h]. |
labial – lingual lingual – glottal labial – glottal bilabial – labio-dental forelingual – mediolingual forelingual – backlingual mediolingual – backlingual
|
pain – cane this – hiss foam – home wear – fair jet – yet thing – king yes – guess
|
4. Manner of the production of noise: a) occlusive: - plosive [p, t, k, b, d, g] - sonorant [m, n, ŋ]; b) constrictive: - fricative [s, f, z, ð, θ, ∫, v, 3, h]; - sonorant [w, r, j, l]; c) occlusive-constrictive (affricates) [t∫, d3]. |
occlusive – constrictive affricate – constrictive affricate – occlusive occlusive: plosive – sonorant constrictive: fricative – sonorant
|
bat – that fair – chair chin – pin pine – mine same – lame
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