- •Содержание
- •1. The subject matter of phonetics. The contribution of Russian and foreign linguists into the development of phonetics as a linguistic science.
- •2. The connection of phonetics with other branches of linguistics.
- •Grammar and phonetics.
- •3. General and special phonetics and their interconnection. Historical, descriptive and comparative phonetics as branches of special phonetics.
- •4. Four aspects of speech sounds. Branches of phonetics based on these aspects and their connection with non-linguistic sciences.
- •5. Methods and instruments of phonetic investigation.
- •6. Main trends in the phoneme theory
- •7. The Kazan school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •8. The Leningrad school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory
- •9. The Moscow school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •10. The Prague school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •11. The London school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •12. The American school of linguistics and its contribution to the development of the phoneme theory.
- •13. The definition and characteristics of the phoneme as a unity of three aspects.
- •14. Phonemic variants and their classification Modification of English vowels in connected speech.
- •15. Phonemic variants and their classification Modification of English consonants in connected speech.
- •16. Relevant and irrelevant features of phonemic variants. The invariant. Allophones and phones.
- •17. Distribution of phonemes. Phonemic oppositions.
- •18. Classificatory principles of English consonants as the basis for the phonological oppositions in the system of English consonant phonemes.
- •Work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation.
- •Active organ of speech and the place of obstruction
- •Manner of the noise production and the type of obstruction.
- •19. Classificatory principles of English vowels as the basis for the phonological oppositions in the system of English vowel phonemes.
- •Position of the lips.
- •Position of the tongue.
- •Length.
- •Degree of tenseness
- •The character of the end.
- •20. Differences in articulation basis of English and Russian vowel and consonant phonemes.
- •21. The definition general characteristics and structure of syllables.
- •22. The definition of the syllable. General principles of classification of syllables. Types of syllables.
- •23. The definition of the syllable. Functional characteristics of syllables.
- •24. The definition of the syllable. The expiratory theory of syllable formation.
- •25. The definition of the syllable. The relative sonority theory of syllable formation.
- •26. The definition of the syllable. The muscular tension theory of syllable formation.
- •27. The definition of the syllable. The three types of consonant theory of syllable division.
- •28. The definition of the syllable. The loudness theory of syllable formation.
- •29. The definition and general characteristics of word-stress. Terms synonymous to stress.
- •30. The definition of word-stress. The classification of word-stress according to its relevant features.
- •31. The definition of word-stress. The classification of word-stress according to its position.
- •32. The definition of word-stress. The degrees of word-stress.
- •33. The definition of word-stress. Accentuation tendencies of English.
- •34. The definition of word-stress. Functional characteristics of word-stress.
- •35. The definition if intonation. Voice tambre and temporal characteristics of intonation.
- •36. The definition of intonation. Speech melody as a component of English intonation.
- •37. The definition of intonation. Sentence stress as a component of English intonation.
- •38. The definition of intonation. Rhythm as a component of English intonation.
- •39. The definition of intonation. Functional characteristics of intonation.
- •40. The definition of intonation. Unemphatic and emphatic intonation.
- •41. The definition of a syntagm and its general characteristics.
- •42. The definition of a syntagm. The head, pre-head, tail as elements of a syntagm.
- •43. The nucleus of a syntagm. The principle nuclear tones in English.
- •44. Standard pronunciation of English and its regional variants. Received Pronunciation and non-rp dialects.
- •45. National variants of English pronunciation. The main types of American pronunciation.
- •46. The main differences between Received Pronunciation and General American pronunciation.
16. Relevant and irrelevant features of phonemic variants. The invariant. Allophones and phones.
Relevant and irrelevant features of phonemic variants. The invariant. Allophones and phones.
The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called non-distinctive, irrelevant or redundant. Thus, it is impossible to oppose a plosive [d] to a non-plosive one in the same phonetic context to distinguish meanings. If an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme the pronunciation error is phonetic.
The articulatory features which serve to distinguish meaning are called distinctive or relevant. The change of relevant features affects the meaning. Thus, all the allophones of the phoneme [d] are occlusive, forelingual, voiced. If occlusive articulation is changed for constrictive one [d] will be replaced by [z] (ex. breed – breeze). If forelingual articulation is changed for the backlingual one [d] is placed by [g] (ex. dear – gear). If voiced articulation is changed for the voiceless one [d] is replaced by [t] (ex. foot – food). All the above mentioned changes in articulation bring about changes in meaning, so occlusive, forelingual and voiced characteristics of the phoneme [d] are relevant, or distinctive. And if an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme the pronunciation error is phonological.
The functionally relevant bundle of articulatory features is called the invariant of the phoneme, which is generalized in the mind of the speaker. As all the allophones of the same phoneme have some articulatory features in common, all of them possess the same invariant. Simultaneously each allophone possesses quite particular phonetic features which may not be traced in the articulation of other allophones of the same phoneme.
Allophones and phones.
The number of sound types or phonemes in each language is smaller than the number of sounds actually pronounced. Allophones are predicted by this or that phonetic environment and their number is limited by the cases of assimilation, accommodation and reduction existing in the language. But what is realized in speech are phones. They do not correspond exactly to the allophones predicted by phonetic environment, as they are modified by phonostylistic, dialectal and individual factors.
17. Distribution of phonemes. Phonemic oppositions.
Distribution of phonemes. Phonemic oppositions.
Each phoneme manifests itself in a certain pattern of distribution – all the positions or combinations in which it occurs. There are three types of distribution:
1) free variation is the simplest distribution of a single phoneme, pronounced differently (ex. initial [k] pronounced with different degrees of aspiration).
2) complementary distribution – when one phoneme manifests itself in the form of different allophones, which occur in different positions and never occur in the same phonetic context. It explains why allophones of the same phoneme can’t differentiate meaning (ex. try, stable, twice etc.).
3) contrastive distribution – when allophones of different phonemes occur in the same phonetic context (ex. pit – bit – sit – kit – wit).
Contrastive distribution is the basis for phonological, or distinctive oppositions. The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning of morphemes and words (ex. try – dry). A phoneme can only perform its distinctive function if it is opposed to another phoneme or zero phoneme in the same position. The phonemes of a language form a system of oppositions. According to the number of distinctive articulatory features, underlying the opposition, the latter can be single, double and triple (or multiple).
If members of the opposition differ in one feature the opposition is single. Ex. pen – Ben ([p] – [b] common features – occlusive, labial, differentiating features – voiced/voiceless).
If members of the opposition differ in two features the opposition is double. Ex. pen – den ([p] – [d] common feature – occlusive, differentiating features – labial/lingual, voiceless/voiced).
If members of the opposition differ in three features the opposition is triple. Ex. pen – then ([p] – [ð] differentiating features – occlusive/constrictive, labial/dental, voiceless/voiced).