Studies of groups of words
Onomastics, or onomatology, is a branch of lexicology that studies proper names. The major groups of proper names include anthroponyms, the names of people, zoolnyms, the names of animals, toponyms, geographical names, and astronyms, the names of stars. Onomastics mostly focuses on the etymology of proper names.
Terminology is a branch of lexicology which studies terms. Terminology is also understood as sets of terms used in particular fields, such as science, technology, law, politics, sports, etc.
Term is a word that has only one meaning within a particular terminological system. E.g. Engl. (Linguistics) phoneme, morpheme, noun, verb, subject, predicate, semantics, semasiology, onomasiology, etc.; Engl./Russ. (Sports, Gymnastics) bars – брусья; horse – конь; build-up – разгон, разбег; flex – наклон; mount – наскок. The same word, when used in different terminological systems, acquires different meanings. E.g. Engl. conductor, Russ. проводник related to electricity and railway transportation; Engl. case related to grammar and law.
Phraseology is a branch of lexicology which studies sequences of words that are semantically and often syntactically restricted, so that they function as single units similar to individual words. Such sequences of words are called phraseological units, or idioms. Idiomatic systems of different languages do not coincide.
Phraseological unit vs. free word-combination. (1) In a free word-combination (FWC) a word may be substituted by another word; in a phraseological unit (PU) words are reluctant to such substitutions, e.g. Engl./Russ. break a leg, *break a neck – ни пуха, ни пера, *ни пуха, ни шерсти. (2) In a FWC the words are semantically autonomous, they retain their meaning; in a PU the words are not semantically autonomous, they do not completely retain their meaning; (3) As a FWC is created in speech, it does not require memorization; a PU is a pre-fabricated unit that belongs to language; such units must be memorized; (4) A FWC designates an object via naming its various aspects, features or parts; a PU names an object as a whole, without highlighting its particular traits manifested by individual words. Hence, the meaning of a PU is similar to that of a single word. E.g. Engl. cool as cucumber ‘unruffled, indifferent’, unstable as water ‘unreliable’, to dance to one’s pipe ‘to obey smb.’; Ukr. ні світ, ні зоря ‘дуже рано’, ні кожі, ні рожі ‘некрасивий’, хоч греблю гати ‘багато’; Russ. обвести вокруг пальца ‘обмануть’, вешать лапшу на уши ‘обманывать’, сесть в лужу ‘опозориться’.
Phraseological units: structural classification. According to their structure, PU can be sentences and phrases, E.g. Sentences: Engl. Score twice before you cut once. Second thoughts are best. Russ. Семь раз отмерь, а раз отрежь. Ukr. Не лізь поперед батька в пекло. Ситий голодного не розуміє. Phrases: Engl. a white elephant; Ukr. шкіра та кістки; Russ. как с гуся вода. Phrases are further subdivided into those with coordination and subordination. E.g. Coordination: Engl. ins and outs, neither fish nor flesh; Ukr. ходи та виходи; ні риба, ні мясо; Subordination: Engl. black sheep; Ukr. паршива вівця. Subordinate phrases are further classified with regard to the head word:
Nominative (the head word is a noun), e.g. a blue stocking – синій чулок, a drop in a bucket – капля в морі.
Adjectival (the head word is an adjective), e.g. regular as clockwork – точний, як годинник, drunk as a lord – пяний як ніч.
Verbal (the head word is a verb), e.g. to beat about the bush – ходити коло та навколо, to be on both sides of the fence – служити і нашим, і вашим.
Adverbial (the head word is an adverb or adverbial element), e.g. quicker than lightning – швидше за блискавку, as a bolt from the blue – як грім серeд ясного неба.
Interjectional (the head word is an interjection), e.g. By George! – Ой, леле! Ой, Господи!
Phraseological units: semantic classification. Semantic classification of PU was introduced by Viktor Vinogradov and further developed by Nikolaj Shanskij. It is grounded on the degree of idiomacity, or motivation of the meaning of a PU. The major groups are:
Phraseological fusions, which synchronically are completely non-motivated, e.g. Engl. red tape ‘bureaucratic methods’, to kick the bucket ‘to die’, to pull smb’s leg ‘to try, for a joke, to make smb. believe that smth. is true’; Ukr. бити байдики; Russ. бить баклуши, тянуть канитель, вешать лапшу на уши.
Phraseological unities, which are partially motivated, as their meaning can be perceived through the metaphorical meaning of the whole PU, e.g. Engl. to show one’s teeth, to wash one’s dirty linen in public; Ukr. показати зуби, виносити сміття з хати.
Phraseological collocations, which are motivated, but their elements have restricted combinability, e.g. Engl. to bare a grudge (malice), but not *to bear a fancy (liking); to take a liking (fancy), but not *to take hatred (disgust); Ukr. ввести в оману, карі очі, гнідий кінь; Russ. оказывать помощь, отвести взор (глаза),закадычный друг.
Phraseological expressions, which are motivated free word-combinations whose stability in language is explained by their frequent use, e.g. Engl. high school, the Department of State, pop music; Ukr. вища освіта, Верховна Рада, художня література.
Phraseological units: stylistic classification. Stylistically, PU are subdivided into:
Neutral, e.g. Engl. gentlemen’s agreement; Ukr. гратися з вогнем; Russ. зайти в тупик, быть между двух огней.
Bookish, used in literary texts or in elevated speech, e.g. Engl. to join the majority; Ukr. поцілунок Іуди; Russ. ищите и обрящете, притча во языцех, отойти в лучший мир.
Terminological, e.g. E.g. Engl. applied linguistics, theory of relativity; Ukr. прикладна лінгвістика, теоря вірогідності.
Bureaucratic, used in official documents, e.g. Ukr. зелені насадження, продукти харчування, виходячи з вищезазначеного; Russ. товары народного потребления.
Colloquial, used in informal speech, e.g. Engl. alive and kicking, to kick the bucket; Ukr. валяти дурня, дати дуба; Russ. толoчь воду в ступе, отбросить коньки, сыграть в ящик.
Phraseological units: etymological classification. Etymological classification considers the sources of PU. The typical sources are:
Cultural beliefs, traditions, and customs, e.g. Engl. to knock on the wood, to keep one’s fingers crossed; Ukr. дати гарбуза, дуля в кишені; Russ. вывести на чистую воду, перемывать кости.
Professional vocabulary, e.g. Engl. to talk shop; Ukr. на живу нитку; Russ. топорная работа, тянуть канитель, поставить на карту.
Historical events, e.g. Engl. to meet one’s Waterloo; Ukr. відкрити Америку, перейти Рубікон; Russ. разбит, как швед под Полтавой.
Mythology and the Bible, e.g. Engl. Achilles’ hill; Ukr. авгієви конюшні, між Сцілою та Харібдою; Russ. яблоко раздора, прокрустово ложе, продать за тридцать серебренников, зарыть талант в землю.
Quotations from literary texts and from the speech of individuals, e.g. Engl. time machine (H. Wells); Ukr. язиката Хвеська (народна казка); Russ. лиса и виноград (Эзоп), лебедь, рак да щука; мартышка и очки (И.Крылов), хотели как лучше, а вышло как всегда (В. Черномырдин).
Barbarisms and translation loans, e.g. From Latin: alma mater, persona non grata; from French: cher-chez la femme – шукайте жінку, a la guerre com a la guerre – на війні як на війні.
Names of organizations and posts, e.g. Engl. the House of Commons, the House of Lords; Ukr. Міністерство освіти; Голова Верховної Ради; Russ. Белый Дом, глава правительства.
Deformation of phraseological units is changing their form or meaning in order to make them more salient and emphatic. The 3 major cases of deformation are:
Extending a phraseological unit, e.g. Engl. to fit like a glove > to fit like a velvet glove; fly in the ointment > several flies in the ointment; Ukr. ложка дьогтю в бочці меду > декілька ложок дьогтю в бочці меду; хто пізно встає, тому хліба не стає > хто пізно встає, тому хліба і сала не стає.
Substituting the elements of a phraseological unit, e.g. Engl. early to bed, early to rise makes no use until you advertise; Ukr. з ким поведешся, з тим і наберешся; Russ. тиха украинская ночь, но сало надо перепрятать; пришел, увидел и ушел.
Reviving the direct meaning of a metaphor, e.g. Engl. I wash my hands ‘I am not responsible’ > I washed my hands before dinner. Ukr. «Диму без огню не бувє», сказав він та визвав пожежників. Russ. Он играл с огнем, когда работал в цирке.