10.What is translation equivalence? Define it.

Translation equivalence is the key idea of translation. According to A.S. Hornby equivalent means equal in value, amount, volume, etc.

In translation equivalent means indirectly equal, that is equal by the similarity of meanings. For example, words table and стіл are equivalent through the similarity of the meanings of the Ukrainian word стіл and one! of the meanings of the English word table. In general sense and in general case words table and стіл are not equal or equiva­lent - they are equivalent only under specific translation conditions.

11.What types of transformations do you know? Which type of transformations presents major translation problems and why?

In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the matter of translator's individual choice and, in general, strongly depend on stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the source text.

Yet, in English-Ukrainian translation there are also cases of regular syntactic transformations, where a translator is expected to observe cer­tain transformation rules more or less strictly.

The majority of syntactic transfor­mations in English-Ukrainian translation are occasional, i. e. the transla­tor transforms the source syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on the context, situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which are unknown and the translator's decisions relevant to the ease are often intuitive.

To put it differently, it is impossible to formulate the rules for the overwhelming majority of such occasional transformations and one sim­ply cannot list all occasional transformations that are observed in Eng­lish-Ukrainian translation.

In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the matter of translator's individual choice and, in general, strongly depend on stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the source text.

Staff only - Службове приміщення.

Equivalence between the original sen­tence and its translation is occasional (i.e. worth only for this case) and the concept, pertaining to the whole sentence cannot be divided into individual components.

Translation transformations are defined by L.S. Barkhudarov as numerous and varied in their quality inter-lingual changes which are made to achieve adequacy in translation in spite of discrepancies in the formal and semantic systems of a SL and a TL.

- the syntactic level favours substitutions which retain the syntactic invariant despite various other replacements, e.g. The sun disappeared behind a cloud. - Солнце скрылось за тучей.

- the semantic level admits of a variety of transformations including passivization, nominalization, replacement of a word by a word group, etc.

E.g. Ваша жена прекрасно готовит - Your wife is a superb cook.

In such cases the invariant is retained on two sublevels: (a) componential &(b) referential

(У меня стоят часы - My watch has stopped).

- the pragmatic level regarded as a top level in the hierarchy of levels exists irrespective of the other two levels and allows a wide range of transformations which cannot be described in terms of a single type (e.g. Many happy returns of the day - С днём рождения).

Regular transformations do not present a serious problem for translation because of their regularity and predictability: what is needed is to know the relevant rule and use it in translation practice, unlike occasional transformations and equivalents which require in­dividual and sometimes unique solutions.

The majority of syntactic transfor­mations in English-Ukrainian translation are occasional, i. e. the transla­tor transforms the source syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on the context, situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which are unknown and the translator's decisions relevant to the ease are often intuitive.

To put it differently, it is impossible to formulate the rules for the overwhelming majority of such occasional transformations and one sim­ply cannot list all occasional transformations that are observed in Eng­lish-Ukrainian translation.