6.What is a translational transformation?

Translation transformations are defined by L.S. Barkhudarov as numerous and varied in their quality inter-lingual changes which are made to achieve adequacy in translation in spite of discrepancies in the formal and semantic systems of a SL and a TL.

- the syntactic level favours substitutions which retain the syntactic invariant despite various other replacements, e.g. The sun disappeared behind a cloud. - Солнце скрылось за тучей.

- the semantic level admits of a variety of transformations including passivization, nominalization, replacement of a word by a word group, etc.

E.g. Ваша жена прекрасно готовит - Your wife is a superb cook.

In such cases the invariant is retained on two sublevels: (a) componential &(b) referential

(У меня стоят часы - My watch has stopped).

- the pragmatic level regarded as a top level in the hierarchy of levels exists irrespective of the other two levels and allows a wide range of transformations which cannot be described in terms of a single type (e.g. Many happy returns of the day - С днём рождения).

An understanding of translation transformations offered by V.S.Vinogradov connects it with two stages in a translator's work:

- the first presupposing perception of a SL text is divided into two phases: pre-translational and translational perception;

- the second phase connected with re-creation.

In the author's opinion causes of translation transformations include two major factors:

(a) a SL text as a determinant of translation modifications and (b) a lingua-ethnical barrier as another important determinant.

A SL text as a determinant of its transformations contains the following features:

1) textual content comprising denotative, significative connotations, the interpreter's level of content, intra-lingual content, structural content;

2) functions of a text including intellectual informative, emotive, aesthetic, nominative, voluntative, phatic. A lingua-ethnical barrier includes linguistic (proper) and ethno-cultural factors:

a) linguistic factors comprise discrepancies between two language systems on various language levels, language norms, speech norm;

b) ethno-cultural barrier refers to pre-textual information stock of SL and TL speakers.

7.What is addition? Give definition and examples.

Addition is a device intended for the compensation of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language. It stems from the differences in the syntactic and semantic structure of English and Russian.

E.g. fuel tax protests – протести, пов’язані з підвищенням податку на паливо.

When translating from English into Russian a translator is to visualize the implicit objects and relations through additions. Newspaper language is especially rich in "'hidden" syntactic and semantic information to be visualized by addition in translation.

E.g. Green Party federal election money – гроші партії зелених, призначені для виборів на федеральному рівні.

Peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання в певній віковій групі.

The policeman waved me on. – Полицейский помахал мне рукой, показывая, что я могу проезжать. Полицейский просигналил (показал), что я могу проезжать. The compact English phrase “to wave on” has no compact equivalent in Russian.