2. Translation and interpretation during the Middle Ages.

The Middle Ages (500 AD – 1450 AD) are characterized by a general lack of progress. Translations and interpretations are known to have been performed in the domains of ecclesiastic science and the church. Written translation as well as oral interpretation naturally continued to be employed during the Middle Ages in interstate relations, in foreign trade and in military affairs. Due to the work of an army of translators, practically all Christian literature was translated during the Middle Ages in most European countries. Moreover, in some countries translations greatly helped to initiate their national literary languages and literatures. The example may be found in English history – the translation of the Latin work Cura Pastoralis under the English title The Shepherd’s (Pastor’s) Book by the abbot Aelfric.

The first approach of word-for-word translation was practiced in the Toledo school in Central Spain (12-13^th AD). Among the works translated there were scientific (in alchemy), mathematical works, philosophy, medicine, etc. In Northern Spain there existed another school of translation of “sense-to-sense” approach with many omissions, additions. It dominated in Europe up to the 18^th century. The only voice against “freedom” in translation was raised by the English scientist and philosopher Roger Bacon (1214? – 1297).

3. Translation during the Renaissance period.

The Renaissance period which began in the 14^th century in Italy was marked by great discoveries and inventions, the most significant of which was the invention of the moving printing press by the German J. Gutenberg in the middle of the 15^th century (1435). There appeared a quick growth of the number of readers in Western European countries. This demand in its turn called an increase in translation activity. Translation began to be performed not only from classic languages but also from and into new European languages. Translating started almost at one and the same time in France, Germany, and England.

Certainly the greatest achievement of the Renaissance period was the translation of the Bible into several West European national languages. The first to appear was the German Bible in Martin Luther’s translation (1522–1534), not strictly word-for-word, but faithfully sense-to-sense. It was followed in 1534 by the faithfully English translation of the Holy Book by William Tyndale.

4. Translation during the period of classicism and Enlightenment.

The controversy between the supporters of three different approaches to translating continued unabated all through the periods of Classicism (17^th – 18^th centuries) and Enlightenment (the 18^th century). They are as follows:

1. the word-for-word translation of ecclesiastic and philosophic works. The basic principles were undermined by Luther’s and Tyndale’s translations of the Bible;

2. free translation introduced by Horace and Apuleius, which had strongly established in France;

3. the Cicero’s principles of regular sense-to-sense translation without reductions or additions to the works.

John Dryden (1630-1700), English literary critic, demanded from translators „faithfulness to the spirit of the original” which became a regular motto in this period.