Тема 3. Реферування, анотування англомовних текстів

Реферат (summary, review, abstract)

Реферування – це процес переробки та викладу інформації в усній, або (частіше) – в письмовій формі.

Процес написання реферату тексту первинного документа (книги, статті тощо) відбувається в три етапи.

1-й етап – це читання вихідного тексту та його анализ з метою детального розуміння основного змісту, осмислення фактичної інформації (вивчаюче читання).

2-й етап – операції з текстом першоджерела: текст розбивають на окремі смислові фрагменти і здобувають основну й необхідну інформацію з кожного з них.

3-й етап –це згортання, скорочення, узагальнення, компресія виділеної основної фактологічної інформації та оформлення тексту реферата відповідно до прийнятої моделі.

Складові елементи реферату: 1) бібліографічний опис реферованого джерела; 2) мета дослідження (статті); 3) значимі наукові факти; 4) нові наукові ідеї, гіпотези, концепції; наукові процеси, явища тощо; 5) методи наукового аналізу, застосовані автором (авторами) статті; 6) авторські аргументи, пояснення; 7) висновки реферованого матеріалу; 8) рекомендації.

Короткий реферат зазвичай містить до 850 знаків.

Анотація (annotation, abstract)

Анотація – це коротка характеристика документа, його частини або сукупності документів з позиції змісту, призначення, форми та інших особливостей. Анотація має пояснювальний або рекомендаційний характер. Середній обсяг анотации – 500 друкованих знаків.

Основні джерела при підготовці анотації:

– титульний лист, що містить вихідні дані; – зміст (перелік заголовків і власне текст оригиналу); – висновки;

– передмова;

– післямова;

– примітки автора;

– графіки й таблиці в тексті.

Складові елементи анотації загалом збігаються із складовими елементами реферату.

Під час реферування (анотування) бажано користуватися стандартним набором висловів на основі безособових речень і пасивного стану дієслів. Наводимо деякі приклади.

У статті розглянуто... Мета статті... Основні цілі дослідження... Представлений огляд... Зроблена спроба.... Досліджено... Проаналізовано особливості... Вивчено... Розглянуто... Головну увагу приділено... Зображено... Охарактеризовано... Описано... Проведено дослідження... Проведено систематизацію й аналіз... Відзначено головні проблеми... Визначено основні етапи (аспекти)... Здійснено узагальнення... Висвітлено взаємозв'язок з... На підставі аналізу... Виявлено, що... Автор впевнений, що.... Автор вважає, що... На думку автора... Отримані результати дозволили авторові... Автор доходить висновку... Автори пропонують... Розкрито процес... Розкрито причини... Показано вплив... Установлено місце та роль... Виявлено участь... Визначено особливості формування... Показано значення... Наведено характеристику... Вирішено питання... Зазначено, що... Доведено, що... Окреслено характерні риси... Уточнено... Систематизовано й узагальнено...

Зразки анотацій :

Англійська комічна опера середини ХХ століття в контексті національної художньої традиції: Автореф. дис... канд. мистецтвознав.: 17.00.03 [Електронний ресурс] / О.В. Петрова; Одес. держ. муз. акад. ім. А.В.Нежданової. — О., 2006. — 18 с. — укp. Досліджено оперні твори провідних англійських композиторів XX ст. Б.Брітгена, М.Тіппена й Х.Бертвістла, що належать до комічного жанру з метою виявлення в них специфіки комічного та з'ясування ролі національного фактора. В "Альберт Херінзі" Б.Брітгена висвітлено взаємозв'язок з сатиричною лінією англійського мистецтва, традиціями "Опери жебраків", образами англійського соціально-побутового та моралістичного роману, творчістю У.Хогарта, Р.Шерідана, Ч.Діккенса. У "Весіллі в Іванів день" М.Тіппета виявлено глибоке шекспіровське коріння (завдяки порівнянню зі "Сном літньої ночі") та його вплив на трактування комічного в опері, а також зв'язок творчістю представників національної літературної школи XX ст. (Т.Еліота, Б.Шоу, Д.Джойса, У.Б.Йейтса). У "Панчі та Джуді" Х.Бертвістла висвітлено роль традицій народного англійського театру, що зумовило втілення комічного у гострогротесковій модифікації. Проаналізовано опери у контексті національної музичної традиції, зокрема творчості Г.Персела, інструментальної та музичної культури єлизаветської епохи, жанру "маски", паралельних у часі та стилі культурно-мистецьких явищ середини XX ст.

Василь Витвицький: музикознавча та композиторська спадщина: Автореф. дис... канд. мистецтвознав.: 17.00.01 [Електронний ресурс] / Л.В. Лехник; Львів. держ. муз. акад. ім. М.В.Лисенка. — Л., 2006. — 20 с. — укp. Комплексно досліджено основні параметри і характеристики наукової та мистецької спадщини В.Витвицького - музикознавця, композитора, музичного критика, а також його музично-громадської діяльності у контексті музичної культури Галичини та західної української діаспори протягом двох останніх третин XX ст. Проведено систематизацію й аналіз музикознавчого доробку, притаманної музикознавцеві методології дослідження. Вивчено найзначніші музичні твори В.Витвицького, здійснено спробу визначити його внесок до української музики та музикознавства. Висвітлено особливе, унікальне місце В.Витвицького в українському музикознавстві та музичній культурі як музичного історика, критика, композитора, педагога й організатора музичного життя. Внаслідок багатогранності його творчості, великого обсягу музикознавчого, музично-публіцистичного доробку та композиторської майстерності його ім'я постає поряд з іменами найбільш відомих музик нашого часу в Україні та в українській еміграції.

Бібліотечна селекція документів в умовах інформатизації: Автореф. дис... канд. пед. наук: 07.00.08 [Електронний ресурс] / Т.Д. Булах; Харк. держ. акад. культури. — Х., 2006. — 20 с. — укp. Розглянуто бібліотечну селекцію як системне явище, що сформувалося за умов змін у зовнішньому середовищі. Визначено основні етапи розвитку теорії бібліотечного відбору, передумови його трансформації у бібліотечну селекцію документів та її місце в технологічному циклі формування бібліотечного фонду в різні історичні періоди і на основі конкретизації його основних процесів обгрунтовано кількісний склад та змістове наповнення основних видів бібліотечної селекції за умов інформатизації. Проаналізовано особливості первинного відбору окремих носіїв інформації та сформульовано основні орієнтири визначення співвідношення між документами в процесі комплектування фонду. Описано технологію бібліотечної селекції з урахуванням функцій бібліотечних установ за умов інформатизації. Охарактеризовано електронну систему бібліотечної селекції як перспективний напрям діяльності вітчизняних бібліотек. Визначено основні аспекти покращення підготовки фахівців бібліотечної сфери. Висвітлено діяльність з формування фондів, організації їх зберігання та використання на основі бібліотечного відбору як технології, яка в процесі переходу до інформаційного рівня соціальних комунікацій трансформується в інтегративний процес бібліотечної селекції в єдиному інформаційному просторі.

Наводимо кілька текстів для самостійного реферування та анотування

Information Overload

Information overload refers to the state of having too much information to make a decision or remain informed about a topic.

Causes of information overload

The general causes of information overload include:

• A rapidly increasing rate of new information being produced.

• The ease of duplication and transmission of data across the Internet.

• An increase in the available channels of incoming information (e.g. telephone, e-mail, instant messaging).

• Large amounts of historical information to dig through.

• Contradictions and inaccuracies in available information.

• A low signal-to-noise ratio.

• A lack of a method for comparing and processing different kinds of information.

E-mail remains a major source of information overload, as people struggle to keep up with the rate of incoming messages. As well as filtering out unsolicited commercial messages (spam), users also have to contend with the growing use of e-mail attachments in the form of lengthy reports, presentations and media files.

In addition to e-mail, the World Wide Web has provided access to billions of pages of information. In many offices, workers are given unrestricted access to the Web, allowing them to manage their own research. The use of search engines helps users to find information quickly. However, information published online may not always be reliable, due to the lack of authority-approval or a compulsory accuracy check before publication. This results in people having to cross-check what they read before using it for decision-making, which takes up more time.

Psychological Effects

As people are faced with growing levels of information overload, the inability to make clear and accurate decisions can increase their stress levels.

An article in the New Scientist magazine claimed that exposing individuals to an information overloaded environment resulted in lower IQ scores than exposing individuals to marijuana. The same article also notes that a night without sleep can be as debilitating as over-exposure to information.

Part of the problem of information overload can be traced to interruptions in the workplace. Interruptions include incoming e-mail messages, phone calls and instant messaging – all of which break mental focus. The person has to deal with the interruption, then redirect their attention back to the original task.

In 2005, research firm "Basex" calculated the cost of unnecessary interruptions and related recovery time at "$588 billion" per annum in the U.S. alone. That figure was updated to "$650 billion" in early 2007.

A theatre director or stage director is a practitioner in the theatre field who oversees and orchestrates the mounting of a theatre production (a play, an opera, a musical, etc.) by unifying various endeavours and aspects of production. The director's function is to ensure the quality and completeness of theatre production and to lead the members of the creative team into realizing their artistic vision for it. The director therefore collaborates with a team of creative individuals and other staff, coordinating research, stagecraft, costume design, props, lighting design, acting, set design and sound design for the production. If the production he or she is mounting is a new piece of writing or a (new) translation of a play, the director may also work with the playwright or translator. In contemporary theatre, the director is generally the primary visionary, making decisions on the artistic concept and interpretation of the text and its staging. Different directors occupy different places of authority and responsibility, depending on the structure and philosophy of individual theatre companies. Directors utilize a wide variety of techniques, philosophies, and levels of collaboration.

The director in theatre history

In ancient Greece, the birthplace of European drama, the writer bore principal responsibility for the staging of his plays. Actors would generally be semi-professionals, and the playwright-director oversaw the mounting of plays from the writing process all the way through to their performances, often also acting in them. He would also train the chorus, sometimes compose the music and supervise every aspect of production.

In Medieval times, the complexity of religious drama, with its large scale mystery plays that often included crowd scenes, processions and eleborate effects, gave the role of director considerable importance. The director's tasks included overseeing the erecting of a stage and scenery, casting and directing the actors, and addressing the audience at the beginning of each performance and after each intermission.

From Renaissance times up until the 19th century, the role of director was often carried by the so-called actor-manager. This would usually be a senior actor in a troupe who took the responsibility for chosing the repertoire of work, staging it and managing the company. This was the case for instance with Commedia dell'Arte companies.

The modern theatre director has originated from the staging of elaborate spectacles of the Meininger Company. Constantin Stanislavski, principally an actor-manager, would set up the Moscow Art Theatre in Russia and similarly emancipate the role of the director as artistic visionary.

Well-known theatre directors

Anne Bogart (United States), Peter Brook (British, mostly working in France), Dominic Cooke (Britain), Richard Foreman (United States), Patrick Garland (Britain), Jerzy Grotowski (Poland), Vsevolod Meyerhold (Soviet Union), Jonathan Miller (Britain), Peter Sellars (United States), Lee Strasberg (Germany), Mary Zimmerman (United States).

Styles of directing

The dictator. In this style of directing, the director has a strongly assertive role and is very dominant in the process of creating a theatrical work. Rehearsals are more or less fully controlled and predictable, with the actors having little or no say.

The negotiator. 'The negotiator' is a style of direction in which the director focuses on a more improvised and mediated form of rehearsal and creation, using the ideas of the production team and actors to shape a theatrical work in quite a democratic style.

The creative artist. The director sees himself or herself as a creative artist working with the 'materials' of dramatic creativity, be they the actors, designers and production team. The "creative artist" wants input from the actors but, as artist, has final say over what is included and how ideas are incorporated.

The confrontationalist. In this style of directing, the director is in constant dialogue and debate with the cast and the production team about creative decisions and interpretations. Out of these exchanges, which can sometimes be heated or risky, comes a final contested product.

Many contemporary directors use a creative amalgam of styles, depending on the genre of the theatrical work, the nature of the project and the type of cast.

Once a show has opened (premiered before a regular audience), theatre directors are generally considered to have fulfilled their function. From that point forward the stage manager is left in charge of all essential concerns.

Rare Book and Manuscript Library (Columbia University)

http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/rbml/about.html

General Information

The Rare Book and Manuscript Library (RBML), the home of many of Columbia's greatest treasures, is housed on the sixth floor of Butler Library. The range of the library's holdings spans more than 4,000 years, from cylinder seals created in Mesopotamia to artists' books on which the ink is barely dry. In addition to printed and manuscript resources, the library contains cuneiform tablets, papyri, ostraca, astronomical and mathematical instruments, maps, works of art, photographs, posters, early printing presses and papermaking equipment, type specimens, sound and moving image recordings, theater set models, puppets, masks, ephemera and memorabilia. The Rare Book and Manuscript Library includes unique and rare materials related to all subject areas, although other Columbia libraries hold much deeper collections of art and architecture, East Asian languages and literatures, health sciences, law, and music.

The current library facility was opened in 1984 and is comprised of the Alan and Margaret Kempner Exhibition Gallery, the Corliss Lamont Rare Book Reading Room, the George D. Woods Manuscript Reading Room, the Peter H. L. and Edith C. Chang Reading Room and Exhibition Gallery, the Reference Center given by the Ruth and Sanford Samuel Foundation, and the Donors Room.

History of the Department

The formation of the rare book and manuscript collections dates back to the founding of the University. The first major donation of rare books and manuscripts to Columbia was the Stephen Whitney Phoenix bequest in 1881. When the Rare Book Department was established in 1930, material that had been collected since the founding of the University finally had a place where it could be preserved and used.

William Schermerhorn's gift in 1902 of the DeWitt Clinton Papers marked the beginning of the active acquisition of collections of original manuscripts, autograph letters, and documents. In the early decades of the 20th century, the large book collections donated or bequeathed, such as the Brander Matthews, George Arthur Plimpton and David Eugene Smith libraries contained significant groups of manuscripts among their diversified holdings. During the post-World War II era the collecting of manuscripts and archives in their own right began to take on ever greater importance, and the rare book and archival resources of the Columbia Libraries have continued to grow through bequests and purchases ever since.

Collections and Treasures

Cuneiform tablet ca. 1900-1600 B.C. Cuneiform writing is believed to have originated with the Sumerians in Mesopotamia six thousand years ago and was used until the first century B.C. The writing was created by pressing the slanted edge of a stylus into soft clay tablets which were then baked to preserve the inscriptions. This clay tablet, in Old Babylonian script, is unique in confirming that the inhabitants of Mesopotamia employed in their calculations Pythagorean number theory, as much as thirteen hundred years before Pythagoras lived, to calculate the size of the sides of a right triangle whose sides are integers. From this tablet we learn that Greek mathematics, particularly astronomy, was indebted to the Babylonian science which preceded it. The tablet is part of a collection of six hundred tablets embracing the Sumerian, Old Babylonian, Kassite and Neo-Babylonian periods, 2100-300 B.C.

Omar Khayyam, thirteenth century. Best known in the west as the poet who wrote the Ruba 'iyat, Omar Khayyam was also one of the leading mathematicians of the Islamic world. This manuscript of his "Algebra," written in standard Arabic scientific characters, was probably copied from an original contemporary manuscript; the work begins with basic definitions and makes its principle contribution in the field of cubic equations.

Euclid Elementa cum commentario Campani Latin manuscript, ca. 1260. English philosopher and mathematician Aethelhard of Bath made the Latin translation, ca. 1120, of this manuscript of Euclid's Elements.

Homer Ilias; Ulyssea; Batrachomyomachia; Hymni xxxii Venice, Aldus and Andreae Asulanus, 1517. The two volumes of this annotated copy of Homer's works in Greek belonged to Philip Melancthon, the chief figure in the Lutheran Reformation after Martin Luther. Melancthon used it in his lectures to his pupils in 1518 in Wittenberg and presented it to Martin Luther, who may also have made some of the annotations. Melancthon began teaching at the University of Wittenberg in 1518, and it was there that he met Luther and formed with him a warm personal relationship. Melancthon taught Greek and Latin literature and was a popular lecturer.

Folk Music in the USA

Folk Music Origins

The roots of country music lie in the folk music that English, Irish, and Scottish settlers brought to the Appalachian Mountain region of the South in the 18th and 19th centuries. English ballads and Irish reels in particular had a major early influence. Such music was performed from colonial times in both religious and social contexts, including church services, weddings, and barn dances. In the early 1920s the first country recordings appeared, introducing the music of string bands.

Important early country music artists included the Carter Family, a trio from rural Virginia, and the blues-oriented singer and songwriter Jimmie Rodgers, from Mississippi. From the late 1920s to the early 1940s the Carter family recorded old folk ballads. Since the 1930s country and folk styles have continued to influence one another. Other major figures of folk-country music include singer and fiddle player Roy Acuff in the 1940s and 1950s, singer Johnny Cash from the 1960s into the 1990s, and country artists Lyle Lovett and Mary Chapin Carpenter in the 1980s and 1990s.

Bluegrass

Bluegrass music developed in rural Kentucky during the 1920s and 1930s. It represented, primarily through its instrumentation, a return to the prerecording days of folk music. Characterized by the acoustic string-band sound of the Southeast, the bluegrass style usually features a banjo, fiddle, and mandolin in lead parts while a guitar and string bass provide accompaniment. Bluegrass vocals are often harmonized and emphasize a high-pitched tenor voice. Instrumental solos and improvisations may be featured between stanzas in a bluegrass song.

Honky-Tonk Music

The first truly urban form of country music, honky-tonk music originated in the roadside bars of Texas and Oklahoma in the 1930s and 1940s. Honky-tonk combined the often sad ballads of folk music and older forms of country music with driving, up-tempo rhythms and the improvisational freedom of jazz music. Drums and steel and electric guitars were prominent. The new style developed as a result of several factors, including the urbanization of the rural South, the introduction of electric guitars, and a more relaxed public attitude toward drinking following the repeal of prohibition in 1933. Honky-tonk broadened the scope of country music lyrics, and songs about drinking, infidelity, and divorce became national hits for the first time.

Western and Western Swing

During the 1930s and 1940s motion pictures about cowboys and the American West popularized the style known as Western music. Western music grew out of a 19th-century tradition of cowboy songs and string bands that was particularly strong in Texas and Oklahoma. Western music frequently features improvisation and a broad range of instruments, including wind instruments. The lyrics center on life on the Western frontier, especially the often romanticized life of the cowboy. Exemplars of the style include the singing cowboys Roy Rogers and Gene Autry, who acted and sang in Western movies of the 1930s and 1940s.

A variation on traditional Western music called Western swing developed in Texas and Oklahoma in the early 1930s. Western swing was a country version of the big-band jazz music popular during the 1930s and 1940s, a period known as the swing era. Western swing bands combined the string band with instruments used in jazz and blues, including the saxophone and trumpet.

Rockabilly

The economic boom that followed World War II (1939-1945) expanded the opportunities for the entertainment industry, including country music performances and recordings. Radio exposed a wider audience to country music while new, relatively inexpensive recording technology made records available at affordable prices. These forces helped create demand for country recordings in greater diversity and quantity than ever before.

One of the most successful responses to this new urban demand for country music was the style called rockabilly. An early form of rock and roll, rockabilly was a mid-1950s fusion of white hillbilly music and black rhythm-and-blues music (R&B). Generally played at faster tempos than other country styles, rockabilly often features a stand up bass, as well as an electric guitar played with a noticeable twang. Rockabilly was popularized in the 1950s and 1960s by such artists as Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Buddy Holly, and the Everly Brothers.

Country-Rock

Country and rock music have borrowed musical elements from one another since the late 1950s. In fact, rock and roll, the earliest form of rock music, combined Western swing, the hillbilly style, and R&B music, while Elvis Presley and other early rock music artists began their careers in country music. During the late 1960s and 1970s Gram Parsons, the Byrds, Buffalo Springfield, and other bands led a movement to merge country and rock styles. The resulting style, known as country-rock, characteristically takes country melody, harmony, and lyric themes and adds the percussive beat, rhythms, and electric instrumentation of rock.

New Country

The term new country dates from the mid-1980s when a handful of artists, notably Ricky Skaggs, John Anderson, Randy Travis, Dwight Yoakam, and the Brooks & Dunn duo, led yet another return to the sounds of traditional country music. This return was primarily to such instruments as steel guitars and single or twin fiddles, as opposed to full orchestral string sections. New country also prominently featured female artists, including Reba McEntire, Patty Loveless, Faith Hill, Trisha Yearwood, and Shania Twain.

In the late 1980s Clint Black, another new-country artist, helped usher in an era of so-called hat acts. Following Black’s example, nearly all male country vocalists began wearing cowboy hats, symbolizing the return of country music to its rural roots.

Current Trends

Country music has developed a broad palette of styles and attracted a large mainstream audience by adapting elements of other musical styles. Many country records of the 1990s would have been considered rock or popular music recordings in past years.

Social Significance

Country music tends to mirror the concerns, achievements, and lifestyle of the times, and remains an important form of American cultural expression. Western-style clothing and numerous catch phrases from country songs have found their way into American popular culture. Although country music was born in the politically conservative South, its audience and many of its performers come from all parts of the political spectrum.

Some Theories Concerning the Development of Civilization

It is obvious that there are some striking similarities, or parallels, as well as marked differences, as humans made the transition from a Neolithic to a civilized way of life in Southwest Asia, Egypt, the Agean sea, India, China, Mesoamerica, and the Andean highlands. Prehistirians and other cultural anthropologists have been concerned for almost a century with trying to understand and interpret these cultural development parallels and differences in some meaningful scientific fashion.

At present several general theories are being debated by prehistorians concerning the development of civilization. Most such theories begin with the view that, during Neolithic times, human life was lived in small social groupings that were based primarily on kinship ties and which were characterized by being mostly egalitarian in form, that is, behavior between equals. And most such theories assume that the rapid growth of human population following 7000 B.C. and establishment of large urban centers, there was a disappearance of social groups based on kinship ties and marked by egalitarian behavior relationships, with the replacement of these features of Neolithic human life with the corresponding growth of social classes and the centralization of political and economic power in the hands of a ruling elite.

For many prehistorians, the growth of the political state is the one factor, above all the others, that led to the rise of civilization. Thus, Karl Wittgogel points out that despotic political control over irrigation systems in the Andean, Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, and Southwest Asia civilizations provided ruling elites with the means to force the rapid change from kin-based and egalitarian social ties to stratified social classes.

Wittfogel’s theory has been criticized by a number of anthropologists, including William P. Mitchell. It is Mitcheli’s belief that it was not the presence of an irrigation system that led to development of the central political and economic power of the state, the appearance of social classes, and sharp decline of kin ties and egalitarian behavior in civilized societies. Mitchel notes that the most important factor in the development of civilization in societies with irrigation systems was the new social rules and coordination of social behavior that were required to build, maintain, and operate such large systems. Moreover, Robert M. Adams has proposed that the centralized political state appeared before use of large-scale irrigation systems, growth of social classes, and other features of civilized life after the Neolithic era.

On the other hand, Leslie A. White (1959) has said that the one factor crucial in any transition from one stage or level of culture to another one is the amount of energy available within a society. Thus, for White, the transition from a Neolithic to a civilized way of life can be seen as an expansion of energy provided by growing and stable surpluses of food in crops and domestic animals, and the availability of surpluses of energy through use of large domesticated animals in construction work.

Julian Steward found White’s theory for the transition from Neolithic to civilized life too simply stated and proposed instead that there were at least five regular and internally complex stages in the development of all civilizations.

Steward’s theory has been widely acclaimed by anthropologists because it moves the discussion of general theory concerning the development of civilization from "single-cause” theories, such as Wittfogel’s, to a much more sophisticated form of multiple-cause theory. However, Steward’s theory has also been criticized by some anthropologists.

Now, whatever the general theoretical explanation for the rise of civilization may be, it is possible to draw at least one broad conclusion concerning the transition from a food-producing to a civilized way of life by humankind. It is clear that from about 7000 years B.C., human capacities, including learning, cognition, and critical appraisal, began to interact with a rapidly developing system of culture in ways that led to new directions and types of change in culture.