How Judicial Precedent Works

If the judge sees that there is a similar earlier court decision he may do any of the following:

Follow. If the facts are sufficiently similar to those of the earlier case, the judge follows the precedent and applies the law in the same way to produce a decision.

Distinguish. If the facts of the case before the judge are different from those of the earlier one, the judge distinguishes the two cases and need not follow the earlier one.

Overrule. Where the earlier decision was made in a lower court, the judge can overrule that earlier decision if he disagrees with the lower court’s interpretation of the law. The earlier decision remains the same but will not be followed.

Reverse. In case of appealing the decision of a lower court to a higher one, the higher court may change it if the judge feels that the lower court has wrongly interpreted the law. So when a decision is reversed, the higher court usually also overrules the lower court’s statement of the law.

In practice the process is rather more complicated than this, since decisions are usually made on the basis of several previous cases, not one.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of case law?

TASK 31. (a) Read the text below and give a definition of a ‘judgment’:

Parts of the judgment

In deciding a case, there are two basic tasks; first, establishing what the facts are, meaning what actually happened); and secondly, how the law applies to those facts. The judges listen to the evidence and the legal argument and then prepare a written decision as to which party wins. This decision is known as the judgment, and is usually long, containing quite a lot of comment which is not strictly relevant to the case, as well as an explanation of the legal principles on which the judge has made a decision. The explanation of the legal principles on which the decision is made is called the ratio decidendi – Latin for the “reason for deciding”. It is this part of the judgment, known as binding precedent, which forms case law. All the parts of the judgment which do not form part of the ratio decidendi of the case are called obiter dicta – which is Latin for “things said by the way”. None of the obiter dicta forms part of the case law, though judges in later cases may be influenced by it, and it is said to be a persuasive precedent.

NOTES:

a binding precedent – обязывающий прецедент

a persuasive precedent – убедительный прецедент

TASK 32. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

1) рассмотреть дело в суде; две основные задачи; установить, каковы факты (что в реальности) произошло; как закон может быть применен к данным фактам; слушать свидетельские показания; юридический спор; подготовить в письменной форме решение о том, в пользу какой стороны решено дело; судебное решение; прямо/строго относящийся к делу; часть судебного решения; формировать прецедентное право; в последующих делах; использовать часть судебного решения obiter dicta.

2) В судебном решении содержится много комментариев, которые часто не имеют прямого отношения к делу. 3) В судебном решении присутствует также объяснение юридических принципов, на базе которых судья выносит свой вердикт. 4) Часть судебного решения, известная как обязывающий прецедент, является источником формирования прецедентного права. 5) Все части судебного решения, которые не формируют ratio decidendi, называются obiter dicta. 6) Часть судебного решения, известная как убедительный прецедент, не является источником формирования прецедентного права, хотя судьи могут использовать ее постулаты в последующих делах.

TASK 33. Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

1) In deciding a case there are two basic tasks: 2) Obiter dicta is Latin for 3) Ratio decidendi is Latin for 4) The judge prepares a written decision 5) The comment in the judgement 6) The ratio decidendi part of the judgement is known as 7) The obiter dicta part of the judgement is often called

a) the “reason for deciding”. b) as to which party wins. c) “things said by the way”. d) is not strictly relevant to the case. e) first, establishing what the facts are; and secondly, how the law applies to those facts. f) a persuasive precedent. g) a binding precedent.

TASK 34. Fill in the gaps with the words and word combinations from the table:

evidence; legal principles; persuasive precedent; applies; is known; judgement; binding precedent; later cases

(1) The witness gave … in a clear firm voice. (2) This rule … to everybody. (3) The written decision as to which party wins … as the judgement. (4) The … is usually long because it contains a lot of comment which is not strictly relevant to the case. (5) The explanation of the … on which the judge makes the decision is known as ratio decidendi. (6) The part of the judgement known as … forms case law. (7) The part of the judgement known as … does not usually form the case law. (8) Judges in … may use the obiter dicta part though it does not usually form the case law.

TASK 35. Complete the text using words and word combinations from the table:

common law (2); applied this common law; the “fountain of justice”; the Middle Ages; one of the available types of writ; to do justice in each case; on a flexible basis; with the people; a developed case law and recognizable principles; predictable

EQUITY

In ordinary language, equity means fairness, but in law it applies to a specific set of legal principles, which add to those provided in the common law. Lawyers often contrast ‘common law’ and ‘equity’. Equity and ______ may be different, but both are law.

The common law was developed after the Norman Conquest through the “itinerant justices” traveling around the country and sorting out disputes. By about the twelfth century, common law courts which ________ had developed. Civil actions in these courts had to be started by a writ, which set out the cause of the action or the grounds for the claim made, and there grew up different types of writ. Early on, new writs were created to suit new circumstances, but in the thirteenth century this was stopped. Litigants had to fit their circumstances to ________. If the case did not fall within one of those types, there was no way of bringing the case to the common law court.

In _______ many of the dissatisfied parties petitioned the king (known as ________) who didn’t want to spend time considering those petitions and relied on the advice of his Chancellor _________. The Chancellor, the king’s chief minister, was usually a member of the clergy, and was thought of as “keeper of the king’s conscience”. Soon litigants began to petition the Chancellor himself, and in the end of the 15^th century (by 1474), petitions were referred directly to the Lord Chancellor who dealt with cases ________. He was more concerned with the fair result than with rigid principles of common law. This was the beginning of the Court of Chancery which became very popular ________.

In 1615, in the Earl of Oxford’s Case, conflicting judgments of the common law courts and the Court of Chancery were referred to the king for a decision, and he advised that where there was conflict, equity should prevail. Had this decision not been made, equity would have been worthless – it could not fulfill its role of filling in the gaps of the ______ unless it was dominant.

In the seventeenth century the initial flexibility of equity led to uncertainty, and the jurist John Seldon observed that equity varied with the length of the Chancellor’s foot. Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable. Equity was unpredictable. Finally equity lost flexibility and conscience and became formalized. Lord Nottingham (Lord Chancellor in 1673-1682) decided that a judge exercising equity jurisdiction should follow existing principles. Equity began to be ruled by precedent, had ________. By the nineteenth century, equity had become _______, and was no less formalized and rigid than the common law.

So there was no reason why it needed its own courts. Consequently the Judicature Acts of 1873-1875, which established the basis of the court structure that we have today, provided that equity and common law could both be administered by all courts, and that there would no longer be different procedures for seeking equitable and common law remedies. Although the Court of Chancery remained as a division of the High Court, like all other courts it can now apply both common law and equity.

NOTES:

a writ – предписание, повестка

to serve writ on smb – послать кому-либо судебную повестку

to set out the cause of the action – изложить причину судебного иска

grounds for the claim – основания для судебного иска (to raise a claim – предъявить претензию, иск; to lay claim to smth – предъявлять права на что-либо; to claim damages – требовать возмещения убытков)

Chancellor – канцлер

the Court of Chancery – суд лорда-канцлера, суд совести

equitable – справедливый, беспристрастный

TASK 36. Answer the following questions about equity:

(1) What does ‘equity’ mean in ordinary language?

(2) What does ‘equity’ mean in law?

(3) When did the common law appear?

(4) What did litigants have to start civil actions with?

(5) What was the purpose of the writs which litigants have to start civil actions with?

(6) Why were new writs created in the 11^th and in the 12^th centuries? When did it stop?

(7) Could litigants bring the case to the common law court if the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ?

(8) Who did many of the dissatisfied parties petition in the Middle Ages? Why?

(9) Whose advice did the king rely on to do justice? Why?

(10) When were petitions referred directly to the Lord Chancellor, and not to the king?

(11) In what way did the Lord Chancellor deal with the cases referred to him?

(12) Why did the Court of Chancery become very popular with the people?

(13) Was equity predictable or unpredictable? Was its flexibility an advantage or a disadvantage (преимущество или недостаток) in comparison with the strictly formulated rules of common law?

(14) What did the initial flexibility of the Court of Chancery lead to in the seventeenth century?

(15) What did the jurist John Seldon say about equity?

(16) When and why did equity lose its flexibility and conscience and become formalized?

(17) What did Lord Nottingham think about administering justice in the Court of Chancery?

(18) What legal principles did the Judicature Acts of 1873-1875 establish?

(19) Did the Court of Chancery remain as a division of the High Court or as an independent body?

(20) Can all courts administer both equity and common law today?

TASK 37. Complete the sentences using words and word combinations from the table:

ordinary language; flexible basis; rigid principles; legal principles; grounds for the claim; fair result; “itinerant justices”; bring the case; exercising equity jurisdiction; circumstances; adoption; unpredictable; administer

(1) In … equity means fairness. (2) In law equity applies to a number of … which add to those of common law. (3) The common law appeared after the Norman conquest through the … traveling around the country. (4) Litigants had to set out the cause of the action or the … in the writ. (5) At first courts created new writs to suit new … . (6) If the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ, litigants could not … to the common law court. (7) The Lord Chancellor was more concerned with the … than with … of common law. (8) The Lord Chancellor dealt with cases on a … . (9) Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable and equity was … . (10) Lord Nottingham decided that a judge … should follow existing principles. (11) With the … of the system of precedent in the Court of Chancery equity became as formalized and rigid as the common law. (12) The Judicature Acts of 1873-1875 provided that all courts could … both equity and common law.

TASK 38. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

(1) противопоставлять общее право и право справедливости; возбудить дело против кого-либо; изложить причину судебного иска; основания для предъявления претензий; разные виды судебных исков; создавать новые формы судебных исков; соответствовать новым условиям; не выходить за рамки существующих типов судебных исков; обратиться с иском в суд общего права; средние века; недовольная сторона; подать прошение королю; известный как «источник справедливости»; полагаться на советы/суждения лорда-канцлера; рассматривать судебные дела с гибкостью; беспокоиться о справедливости решения; жесткие/негибкие принципы общего права; первоначальная гибкость суда лорда-канцлера; привести к неопределенности; четко сформулированные законы/правила общего права; предсказуемый/непредсказуемый; в конце концов; потерять гибкость и совесть; стать формальным; судья, отправляющий правосудие в рамках права справедливости; следовать/принимать решение на основе уже действующих/существующих принципов; к девятнадцатому веку; принятие прецедентной системы в суде лорда-канцлера; отправлять правосудие на базе как общего права, так и права справедливости; заложить основы структуры судопроизводства; подобно другим судам; структурное подразделение Высокого Суда.

2) В своем обычном языковом значении термин ‘equity’ обозначает справедливость. 3) В юриспруденции термин ‘equity’ применяется относительно нескольких правовых принципов, которые являются дополнением к общему праву. 4) Чтобы возбудить дело, истцы должны были послать ответчику судебную повестку определенной формы. 5) В судебном иске истец должен был изложить причину судебного иска и указать основания для предъявления претензий. 6) Новые формы судебных исков соответствовали новым условиям. 7) Истцу приходилось формулировать свои претензии таким образом, чтобы это соответствовало одному из уже существующих типов судебных исков. 8) В средние века многие недовольные подавали прошение королю. 9) Король часто полагался на суждение лорда-канцлера при отправлении правосудия. 10) В пятнадцатом веке люди обращались с прошениями напрямую к лорду-канцлеру, который считался «хранителем совести короля». 11) Лорда-канцлера больше волновала справедливость решения, нежели жесткие принципы общего права. 12) Суд лорда-канцлера стал очень популярен. 13) В семнадцатом веке первоначальная гибкость суда лорда-канцлера привела к неопределенности. 14) Джон Селдон заметил, что справедливость варьировалась в зависимости от размера ноги лорда-канцлера. 15) Лорд-канцлер решил, что судья, отправляющий правосудие в рамках права справедливости, должен принимать решение на основе уже действующих принципов. 16) С принятием прецедентной системы в суде лорда-канцлера правосудие на базе «права справедливости» стало таким же заформализованным и негибким, как и в судах общего права. 17) Подобно всем другим судам суд лорда-канцлера в наши дни принимает решения на основе принципов как общего права, так и права справедливости.

TASK 39. (a) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

1) to start an action against smb 2) to set out the cause of the action 3) to set out the grounds for the claim 4) to suit new circumstances 5) to bring the case to the common law court 6) the Middle Ages 7) еquity 8) а dissatisfied party 9) the Court of Chancery 10) rigid principles 11) to contrast ‘common law’ and ‘equity’

a) изложить причину судебного иска b) обратиться с иском в суд общего права c) возбудить дело против кого-либо d) право справедливости e) соответствовать новым условиям f) средние века g) изложить основания для предъявления претензий h) недовольная сторона i) жесткие принципы j) противопоставлять общее право и право справедливости k) суд лорда-канцлера / суд совести

(b) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

1) to rely on the advice of the Chancellor 2) to lose flexibility 3) to administer both equity and common law 4) conscience 5) to become predictable 6) to lead to uncertainty 7) to petition the king 8) strictly formulated rules 9) to exercise equity jurisdiction 10) to follow existing principles

a) потерять гибкость b) совесть c) отправлять правосудие на базе как общего права, так и права справедливости d) полагаться на советы канцлера e) привести к неопределенности f) подать прошение королю g) стать предсказуемым h) отправлять правосудие в рамках права справедливости i) принимать решение на основе уже действующих принципов j) четко сформулированные правила

(c) Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

1) In ordinary language equity 2) In law equity applies to the legal principles of 3) Lawyers often contrast ‘common law’ 4) In the 13th century litigants had to fit their circumstances 5) If the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ, 6) In the Middle Ages the dissatisfied parties often 7) In the Middle Ages the king was known as 8) In the Middle Ages the Lord Chancellor was known as 9) The Court of Chancery became very popular because 10) In the 15th century petitions were referred directly

a) flexibility and conscience. b) and ‘equity’. c) means fairness. d) to one of the available types of writ. e) litigants could not bring the case to the common law court. f) the “fountain of justice”. g) petitioned the king. h) the Lord Chancellor was more concerned with the fair result than with rigid principles of common law. i) the “keeper of the king’s conscience”. j) to the Lord Chancellor.

(d) Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

1) With the adoption of the system of precedent, 2) John Seldon observed that 3) The Lord Chancellor dealt with cases 4) Lord Nottingham decided that a judge exercising equity jurisdiction 5) Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable whereas (тогда как) 6) The Judicature Acts of 1873-1875 established 7) Finally equity became as formalized and rigid 8) In the 19th century there was no reason why equity 9) The Court of Chancery is 10) The Court of Chancery can apply

a) a division of the High Court now. b) the basis of the court structure that we have today. c) both common law and equity now. d) equity varied with the length of the Chancellor’s foot. e) equity became predictable and formalized. f) on a flexible basis. g) equity was unpredictable. h) needed its own courts. i) as the common law. j) should follow existing principles.

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Useful Words and Expressions for Speech Practice
appellate court (Court of Appeal) – апелляционный суд tо appeal — подавать апелляционную жалобу valid - юридически действительный, имеющий силу application - принятие (права, закона); заявление, просьба, ходатайство. tо exercise jurisdiction - осуществлять юрисдикцию Magistrates’ Court – магистратский суд Crown Court – королевский суд / суд Короны High Court – верховный суд County Court – суд графства court of first instance – суд первой инстанции European Court of Human Rights – Европейский суд по правам человека Juvenile Court – суд по делам несовершеннолетних	justice of the peace – мировой судья to decide a case – выносить решение по делу to have the right to trial by jury – иметь право на суд присяжных to hear appeals – рассматривать апелляции to have evidence – иметь улики barrister – барристер (адвокат, имеющий право выступать в высших судах) solicitor – солиситор, адвокат, поверенный advocacy - деятельность адвоката (в суде) right of audience - право выступать в суде proceeding(s) - судебное разбирательство, рассмотрение дела в суде, производство по делу, судопроизводство сriminal proceeding – уголовное преследование to commence proceeding(s) – инициировать начало рассмотрения дела, возбуждать судебное преследование

TASK 40. Read the text below and make a list of the courts mentioned there.